Babies Modified Genetically

Marcy Darnovsky in this article discusses the biological procedure of creating genetically modified human beings. The procedure is called mitochondrial manipulation by the FDA. The process of this procedure starts by surgically removing the nuclear material from the affected woman's egg or embryo of the mitochondrial disease. The egg or embryo in the woman must have the inheritable mitochondrial disease initially before the process can be done to be replaced with the new healthy egg. The mitochondrial disease affects an estimated one-thousand to four-thousand United States children. The disease is from a genetic abnormality with defects of converting food into energy, and can also be caused by exposure toxins. The disease can only be passed down from the mother of the offspring, and the procedure of manipulating the mitochondrial will potentially aid in allowing these affected women to give births to unaffected children in the future. I think that this discovery is noninvasive and can have the potential to eliminate the carriers of the mitochondrial disease throughout the generations of the future. The fact that with each procedure removes the risk of the mother's offspring from passing on the disease, this would result in the child not passing it onto their future offspring which is ideal for the elimination of the mitochondrial disease thriving.

The price of a long, healthy life may be reduced fertility

So how many of you would be readily prepared to sacrifice your fertility in order to increase your the amount of time you live? Sounds like a pretty sweet deal right? Pretty selfish if you ask me but it could soon be a reality. One day we could be offered a choice between having children or enhancing our chances of reaching very old age. Over time our bodies degenerate naturally and have a limited energy budget that can either be used to repair damaged cells and halt this decline, or saved to allow us to reproduce, so researcher have said in the 1970s. Come thirty years later and advances in genomic techniques have enabled scientist to isolate a key molecular pathway that involves the aging process. This hormone is called IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1). In mammals IGF-1 is believed to initiate a chain of events that control the way that our energy is used. Genes are involved that stimulate the proteins to begin the vital processes like repairing damaged cells, which has a major affects on postponing the onset of cancer. These types of processes are dependent on the levels of IGF-1, with low levels sending the body into a self preservation mode switching the energy allocation away from the reproductive organs and more towards the maintenance and repair of DNA and proteins. A study found that high levels of IGF-1 in the blood of middle aged people were associated with Alzheimers.

This seems like a trade that most people would be willing to do. Some people just dont want to have kids because of how stressful and demanding the job can be. Dont want any kids? Good news you can now live longer! Still want kids? Enjoy the wonders of being a parent with the same lifespan as every other adult.

The tie between alcohol and muscle strength

Researchers at Thomas Jefferson University( TJU) in Philadelphia have been studying mitochondria, the organelles in the body responsible for converting energy into forms that are usable by our cells. The article explains that in normal mitochondrial, damaged parts are segregated from the cell and replaced with properly functioning proteins donated from other healthy mitochondria. Scientists have questioned if this same process occurs in skeletal muscle, because of packed fibers and tightly squeezed mitochondrial cells found there. Veronica Eisner, a post-doctoral student at TJU has been studying if mitochondrial found in muscle could fuse to regenerate. After tagging the mitochondria in rats cells and genetically altering those mitochondria to show if fusion took place, she was surprised by the results. Mitochondrial fusion occurs in muscle cells. The major mitofusin protein, Mfn1 was the most important protein in skeletal muscles. Mfn1 was then studied to see the effects under alcohol abuse, since alcoholism is known to lead to muscle weakness. The study showed that Mfn1 went down as much as 50% in rats placed on a regular alcohol diet. This change also occurred with a massive decrease in fusion. The restoration of Mfn1 also came with the restoration of mitochondrial fusion. This shows that consistent alcohol use impacts a specific gene used in mitochondrial fusion and further research could lead to the development of drugs to help maintain Mfn1.

The First Sex-Determining Genes

In a recent study, scientists at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics examined when X and Y chromosomes began to differentiate. These “sex genes”, the Y chromosome in particular, are ultimately responsible for all the morphological and physiological differences between males and females. The team examined male tissues from the testicles from different species of the three major mammalian lineages. They looked at humans, apes, rodents and elephants, which made up the placental lineage, opossums and kangaroos which are from the marsupial lineage, and egg-laying mammals known as the monotreme lineage. Rather than sequencing all of the Y chromosomes, the research team decided to compare the genetic sequences from male and female tissues and eliminated all common sequences between both sexes in order to keep only the sequences that corresponded to the Y chromosome. By taking this route the team created the largest gene atlas of the Y chromosome to date. The study established that the first “sex genes” appeared together in mammals around 180 million years ago. The sex-determining gene named SRY in placentals and marsupials had formed in the common ancestor also around 180 million years ago. The AMHY gene, accountable for the emergence of Y chromosomes in monotremes, appeared some 175 million years ago. Both of these genes emerged at nearly the same time but totally independent of one another. Although they found when these genes emerged it is still unclear what the nature of the sex-determination system in the common ancestors of all mammals was.

This study can stand as a basis for further research on what determines the development of the Y chromosome. It can fuel future research on what influences contributed to why an individual is born male or female. It can help reveal if these factors were even related to the sex chromosome or if they were environmental such as temperature. By laying the ground work and putting in over 29,500 computing hours and creating the largest gene atlas of the Y chromosome, this research may help answer these questions and many others relating to the sex genes.

Article Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140423151035.htm

Related Link: http://www.biology-online.org/2/6_sex_chromosomes.htm

"Y'd" You Have To Go?-Loss of Y Sex Chromosome in Men Contributing Factor in Cancer and Lower Life Expectany

The Y chromosome in humans is widely known to be one of the sex chromosomes that determines the physical sex of a person. A Y chromosome translates to a physically male human, and males have been found to have a lower life expectancy. Researchers at Uppsala University have recently found that loss of the Y chromosome in aging men may be to blame. They took blood samples from over 1600 elderly men and found that the most common abnormality was loss of Y chromosomes in a large number of their white blood cells. The study went on for several years to follow the lives of the men, and those who had lost a large number of Y chromosomes had shorter lives, regardless of how they died. Those men also had a higher risk of getting cancer. The Y chromosome is sometimes believed to be insignificant beyond sex determination and sperm production, but it also has an important tumor suppression role. Hopefully, future research will make it possible to use the Y chromosome to predict the risk a man has for developing cancer.

Secondary Article

Is Y chromosome responsible for shorter life expectancy and higher cancer risk in men?

 

Overall, it is pretty well known that men have a shorter life expectancy, as well as a higher risk for certain types of cancers than women. An international group of researchers analyzed DNA samples from over 1,600 elderly men. They found that the loss of the Y chromosome in some white blood cells was the most common genetic alteration. They also found a correlation between the loss of the Y chromosome and a shorter life span, as well as an increased risk of cancer mortality. Everyone knows that the Y chromosome is mostly known because it is only present in men, and it plays a role in sex determination and sperm production. However, these researchers found that the Y chromosome also has a role in tumor suppression, which could explain why men get cancer more than women.

Hopefully in the future, the Y chromosome could predict the risk for men to develop cancer. Also, this new research could help determine why men have a higher risk for certain cancers opposed to women.

 

 

Article: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140428121205.htm

Related Article: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/14/323

The Trail that Impacted the Cherokees

The journey of Native Americans from the southeastern homeland were forced to migrate to eastern Oklahoma by the federal government. During the trail to Oklahoma, the Native Americans dealt with the trauma of starvation, variations of diseases, and even death. This article investigates through the study of Cherokee, that the stress from the traveling and new adaptations of the new environment could potentially cause the negative impact on normal growth development of their skulls. the study conducted by Ann H. Ross suggested that the external environment may have a hindering effect of growth in the Cherokee's skull. The prior studies did find that the skull measurements, such as the cranial length showed there is indeed a decrease in size that was affected by stress. The current study observed the Cherokee adult skulls that were from 1783 and 1874 births years to compare the skull measurements. The researchers found that the skull measurements were concluded to have shorter length craniums than those that were born before 1783 and 1874. The results suggested that the stress of the Native Americans having to be forced into new environments such as living in the harsh winters, and the lack of food during the events of the trail of tears, this could potentially be the main cause of the skull size decreasing. I found that this conclusion appears to be feasible due to the fact that the skulls they measured were decreased and they were the ones who were developing and growing during the time of the stress of the trail travels. The fact that the earlier natives showed larger cranium lengths makes me believe that the stress of external things can have and impact and cause a detrimental effect on the development of humans.

Scientists crack genetic code of tsetse fly

 

    According to MediLexicon International's article, A 10-year project involving more than 140 scientists around the world has resulted in the successful sequencing of the genetic code of the tsetse fly "Glossina morsitans". The fly is the sole carrier of African sleeping sickness or trypanosomiasis, a disease that threatens millions of people across sub-Saharan Africa and devastates livestock. An estimated 70 million people in across sub-Saharan Africa are at risk for sleeping sickness, which occurs in two stages.

 



    The first stage of infection causes fever, headaches, aching joints and itching. The second stage, when the parasite crosses the blood-brain barrier, causes confusion, poor co-ordination and the sleep problems that give the disease its name. Without treatment, African sleeping sickness is fatal. Also, diagnosis and treatment are difficult, and require specially trained staff to administer them. And while drugs exist, they are expensive and have many undesirable side effects. In livestock, trypanosome infection causes anemia and weight loss, which can lead to death. The result is billions of dollars of livestock lost every year. Although the infection is not found in the United States, historically, it has been a serious public health problem in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa (Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Sudan). By unraveling the genetic code of the tsetse fly, researchers have essentially produced a "parts list" of the organism. The blueprint contains codes for all the 12,000 genes that control protein activity in the fly. Giving scientists access to the blueprint is expected to speed up research into the fly's unusual biology and lead to new methods and strategies for controlling the fly.

 

 

     It is interesting to read how the tsetse fly genome comprises around 366 million letters of code, which is about one tenth of the size of the human genome. Its also unique in that unlike other flies the tsetse only gives birth to few offspring at a time, and each fly only yields a small amount of genetic material. Tsetse fly is highly unusual among insects in that they have developed unique partnerships with bacteria for several aspects of their biology, and they give birth to live young that have developed to a large size by feeding on specialised glands in the mother. It's exdrodinary how sleepiness sickness is caused by microscopic parasites of the species Trypanosoma brucei. It is hoped the genome map of the tsetse fly will help scientists understand more about evolutionary biology.

 

For more information on the parasites that cause sleeping sickness via flies, you can vist http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/our-work/medical-issues/sleeping-sickness

Adult Human Cells Cloned for First Time

It has finally happened we can clone human cells. Ever since Dolly the Sheep was cloned in 1996, scientists have been trying to do the same thing with human cells. The researchers replaced the original DNA in an unfertilized egg with the donor DNA, and then cultured the cells in a lab dish. The stem cells, which were an exact match to the donor's DNA, can then be turned into various tissue types. These tissue cells can be used for Alzheimer's, cancer, and could even be used for dead cells. The technique works by removing the nucleus from an unfertilized egg and replacing it with the nucleus of a skin cell. An electric shock causes the cells to begin dividing until they form a blastocyst,this is when the inner cell mass, which subsequently forms like an embryo. Another technique is using the    blastocyst which is then implanted into a womb, but with this technique the cells would be harvested to be used to create other organs or tissues not a full grown clone. This technique is very close to being able to clone humans but not just yet. I believe cloning people will only be a few more years. But this study does lead to helping against cancer and it also makes new organs and tissue for those who need it. 

You may have billions and billions of good reasons for being unfit

Yep that's right, apparently being unfit has many benefits for the human body. Our chromosome are relatively stable for most of our lifetime, but our mitochondria is highly variable across individuals and may impact human health, so say researchers. Genomes are ever changing, not from generation to generations but even within our lifetime. Researchers are first to identify the extent to which the editing processes of RNA code can vary across a large number of individuals. As you know the mitochondria is the power station of our cells and the more power a cell needs, the more mitochondria you'll find in it. Researchers have found a correlation between mitochondrial RNA and our basal metabolic rate, the rate at which we are able to convert food into energy. They looked specifically at mutations in the RNA of the mitochondria. This means that because of this irregularity, the DNA and the level of modification of the mitochondria will result in cellular energy being produced. While this research may give the unfit a slight excuse for not getting in shape, there is still much research to be made about these correlations.

It would be pretty interesting to see exactly how much more energy it would give to an individual. Does have more fat really give us THAT much more where it could be beneficial? For now i'll stick to casually lifting weights and the occasional Pizookie my girlfriend makes, yum.

Healthy blood cells of 115-year-old woman show hundreds of mutations

      According to MLT's article, in 2005, a 115-year old woman died and became the oldest person ever to donate her body to science. Now, researchers who analyzed the healthy blood cells in her body say they have identified over 400 genetic mutations, suggesting such lesions are mostly harmless in our bodies over a lifetime. It is explained that very little is known about mutations in the bodies of healthy people. Stem cells in our bone marrow are constantly dividing to create new blood cells, but the researchers note that the process of cell division introduces errors, and the dividing cells can acquire genetic mutations. In patients with blood cancers, hundreds of mutations have been found but, it is not clear whether healthy white blood cells also contain mutations.To be more conclusive,  researchers utilized whole genome sequencing of healthy white blood cells from the 115-year-old woman to determine whether mutations do, in fact, build up there.
    
      The 115 year old woman did not have any symptoms of hematological illnesses, the researchers say, and add that an autopsy showed she "did not suffer from vascular or dementia-related pathology." Results showed that there were over 400 somatic mutations ,  in the white blood cells that were not found in her brain. In fact,the mutations they found were mostly in non-coding regions of the genome that have not previously been linked with disease, but they were in "mutation-prone" areas, such as "methylated cytosine DNA bases and solvent-accessible stretches of DNA." One of the researcher's concluded that in human longevity, future studies need to investigate whether stem cell exhaustion is a likely cause of death at very old ages.

     It is amazing what researcher's can find when people donate their bodies to science. It helps us understand diseases and help further our advancements in technology to develop cures and/or better understanding of mutations we sinmply cannot explain.It is truly interesting how results showed over 400 somatic mutations (those that are not passed on to offspring and do not lead to disease) in her blood cells. They also found that the white blood cell telomeres were 17 times shorter than those in the brain.

For more information on stem cells and aging please visit: http://www.agein.com/would-you-try-stem-cells-controversial-anti-aging-solution-to-look-younger-3360

Scientists Identify Mysterious Sound in the Southern Ocean

Scientists have been recording a mysterious sound coming from the Southern Ocean for decades. This unique, rhythmic sound was first heard by submarine personnel in the 1960's. They called it, "bio-duck" because, (you guessed it!) they thought it sounded like a duck. The culprit behind the bio-duck had remained a mystery, until now.




Scientists have tied the sound to the elusive Antarctic Minke Whale. In February 2013, an international team of researchers managed to deploy acoustic tags upon two Antarctic Minke Whales off the Western Antarctic Peninsula. These were the first successful acoustic tags placed on the species. These tags have provided much more information about the species other than the bio-duck noise itself, including its annual habitual migration. Although researchers have concluded the source behind the  bio-duck sound, the reason why they make it still remains one of the many mysteries of the ocean.

Original article:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140423132614.htm

Behavior Linked with Smoking?

     We all know cigarettes are bad for you, but the real question is "how bad"? We all know that cigarettes damage our throats, lungs, and other parts of our body, but scientists are beginning to discover a new problem arising out of smoking. A recent study has shown that mother's who smoke cigarettes during their prenatal stage, are putting their children at greater risk for behavioral problems. Of course, this is usually linked with a genetic risk for behavioral problems, but they are now beginning to understand that the smoking of cigarettes increases their risk of the behavioral problem arising. This is very interesting news as it sheds light onto an already tattered reputation, but no one is complaining. In our current society smoking cigarettes is increasing being looked down upon, and more news like this puts cigarettes deeper and deeper into the hole they have dug themselves into. So, we already know the life threatening side-effects of smoking cigarettes presents, but now that more problems arising. So the question then becomes, "Will people continue to smoke cigarettes?" The answer to that question is YES! People are addicted to cigarettes and will continue to be regardless of the negative effects. So, if you see a mother-to-be walking down the street smoking a cigarette, make sure you warn her and tell her to read this article.

Cancer stem cells linked to drug resistance

In a recent article, researchers at the University of California School of medicine have discovered a molecule called CD61 on the surface of drug resistant tumors that appear responsible for inducing tumor metastasis by enhancing the stem cells properties of cancer cells. In most cases, most drugs used to treat lung , breast and pancreatic cancer also promote drug-resistance and ultimately spur tumor growth. Based on these findings, Hatim Husain, MD and assistant professor who treats lung and brain cancer patients at Moores Cancer Center, has designed a clinical trial to attack the pathway of patients with drug resistant tumors. This will be, however, begin with patients who have lung cancer and have experience of cancer progression and drug resistance to erlotinib. This is expected to begin next year. Husain states that "based on the research findings, we hope to better understand and exploit the "Achillies heel" of the Drug-resistant tumors. I believe this research is a better understanding and a step forward to killing the cancer cells. This will take time however and were hoping that it becomes a success in trials.


original article: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140420131521.htm

secondary article: http://guardianlv.com/2014/04/stem-cells-increase-in-cancer-patients-possibly-from-drug-resistance/

Deadly Human Pathogen Cryptococcus Fully Sequenced

The strain H99, from the pathogenic lineage of Cryptococcus neoforms, has been genomically sequenced along with its complementary counterparts after a 10 year effort. This fungus gives rise to millions of cases of pneumonia and meningitis every year and up until now was a very dangerous, mysterious strain. With the genomic blueprint, scientists will be able to be able to test it repeatedly to find its weakness and how to fight against this deadly pathogen and its mutating strains. H99 is mutating strain that affects those with low immune systems such as individuals already infected with the HIV virus or transplant patients. Fred Dietrich and colleagues have isolated the strain and unraveled the genetic sequence in both a laboratory controlled setting as well as the host. This strain is so dangerous because it is able to produce genetic messages from both strands of DNA which enable it to constantly adapt to new environments thus making it a stronger, unbreakable virus. Dietrich and colleagues have uncoded the genome, DNA code, transcriptome, and the RNA molecules. There are approximately 20 million ACTG nucleotides each in the genetic code. The next step will be to mutate every gene to see which change will cause pathogenesis. This will give insight on this particular gene but will also be a point of reference for comparing other genomes of similar strains.

This unfolding of genomic sequencing is incredible and will be used as a point of reference and starting point for other strains similar to this. With this code, we can alter and see what can be added or deleted to fight against and make it more vulnerable to antibiotics. Millions of people every year are diagnosed with meningitis or pneumonia by inhaling airborne fungal spores. This is just the beginning of the fight against Cryptococcus neoforms. This fungus can be found in soil throughout the entire world.

Primary website: http://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/cryptococcosis-neoformans/

Secondary website: http://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/cryptococcosis-neoformans/

Labels: Cryptococcus neoform, fungus, genomic sequence, meningitis, pneumonia 

Male or Female?

Everyone knows the underlying main difference between males and females depends on one element of the human genome. The X and Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, where females have two X’s and males have one X and one Y. However, a long time ago, the X and Y chromosome were identical until the Y started to differentiate in males. It began to shrink substantially, as it now carries only about 20 genes, and the X chromosome carries over 1000 genes. It was not until recently that scientists discovered when the Y chromosome first appeared in mammals, about 180 million years ago. To determine this, scientists examined samples of several male tissues from different species. They recovered the Y chromosome genes from several mammalian lineages including placentals, marsupials and monotremes. They ended up establishing the largest gene atlas of the Y chromosome to date.

            I think this new discovery is very important to learning more about the evolution of mammals. With further research into this field, hopefully scientists will be able to discover even more about the sex chromosomes. This could lead to new procedures for gender-selection of babies, or may even help to find a cure for sex-linked diseases.

 

Article: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140423151035.htm

Related Article:  http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/end-of-men-not-just-yet-say-scientists-investigating-mysteries-of-male-y-chromosome-9278496.html

Discovery of New Protein Launches Revamped Fertility Treatment

According to this article, scientists at Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute have discovered a protein vital for fertilization located of the egg cell.  Previously the protein required for fertilization located on the sperm cell was discovered and named Izumo.  Researchers had been curious about the Izumo protein counter part.  This newly discovered egg cell protein is named Juno after the Roman Goddess of love and fertility.  These two proteins are vital for the fertilization of mammalian eggs that lead to a growing organism.  Any organism lacking these proteins, naturally males who lack Izumo and females who lack Juno, will be infertile.  The bond made between Juno and Izumo, though weak, is essential for the creation of life.  After fertilization it is known that the egg will no longer recognize any other sperm.  This may be related to the fact that the Juno protein disappears from the surface of the egg after it is fertilized.  Doctors can now test for the absence of this protein in order to determine the possible cause of infertility in women.  This new discovery will also help scientists research new and improved contraceptives as well as fertility treatment, changing the genetic world.

This research is such an important discovery in the medical field.  Doctors will now be able to improve fertility treatments in order to help women become pregnant.  Today, so many women are unable to conceive and it is a traumatic experience for both the woman and her husband.  It causes an enormous amount of stress, but all this stress could be alleviated by this discovery of the Juno protein.  Scientists can revamp fertility treatments and thus make so many women mothers.  On the other side of the spectrum new contraceptives could be created that would  affect the functioning of the Juno protein.  Overall I believe this discovery, and new research to come, will be extremely helpful and vital to today's society.

Snail Trail Reveals Ancient Human Migration

Geneticists have used snail trails to uncover evidence of an ancient human migration from the Pyrenean region of France to Ireland. Dr. Angus Davison and Adele Grindson from the University of Nottingham found that snails in Ireland we identical to snails in the Pyrenees, genetically, even though they were thousands of miles apart from each other. Geneticists used mitochondrial phylogenies instead of using just similar shells to find the connection. The simplest explanation for this is snails hitched a ride with humans approximately 8,00 years ago since they are the fastest animal out there. There are records of Stone Age humans using snails are a source of food and actually farming snails so this may also be help the theory of snails hitching a ride with humans. The results tied in with what we know from human genetics about human colonization in Ireland.
I believe these findings may seem small but they can help scientists with many other important findings in human colonization and tracing back where humans have evolved from. I also find it interesting that this all happen thousands of years ago and we can trace it all back now.

Why alcoholism saps muscle growth

In this article, mitochondria fusion in muscle cells was discovered. The researcher team led by Director of Jeffersons MitoCare Center showed that the mitofusin fusion proteins, was most important in skeletal muscle cells. They tested whether mitochondrial fusion was the culprit in examples of muscle weakness, such as alcoholism. The research showed that the abundance of Mfn1 went down as much as 50 percent in rats on a regular alcohol diet, while other fusion proteins were unchanged. This decrease was coupled with a massive decrease in mitochondrial fusion. Mfn1 and mitochondrial fusion was linked to increase muscle fatigue. Alcohol can have a specific affect on this one gene involved in mitochondrial fusion suggest that other environmental factors may also alter mitochondrial fusion.

I believe that alcohol plays a huge impact on the way people develop muscle as well as fatigue in different exercises.  I have experience in both of these actions and going to the gym the day after consuming alcohol, my body feels terrible. I lose my breath much faster and cannot produce as much as I would on a normal day.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/196279.php

  

Gut Microbes Gobble Cocoa

In this article, Microbes like bifidobacterium and lactic acid bacteria that reside in the human gut feast on chocolate. It was said that when you eat dark chocolate, these bacteria grow and ferment it, producing compounds that are anti inflammatory. In the human digestive tract, food scientists tested three cocoa powders. Researchers found that within the mock gut, cocoa is fermented and the large polyphenolic polymers are metabolized to smaller molecules. Gut microbes could help reduce a persons feeling of hunger after digesting cocoa. The fiber is broken down into short fatty chain acids, which are absorbed and could have an affect on satiety. Researchers have yet to confirm results meaning do not go to your local candy store and start eating all the chocolate bars in sight, many of these products contain sugar and fat which is not good for you.

http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/gutmicrobes/

A Case of Identical twins - not really identical?

According to the LA Times, a pair of identical twins fetuses were discovered to be not exactly identical. While they had the same exact DNA, for some reason, unknown to researchers, one of the twins had an extra chromosome (which would cause down syndrome) and the other one did not. Since identical twins are supposed to have the same exact 3 billion base pairs of DNA, it has become a mystery to scientist on how only one of the twins was affected. Due to this discovery being while the twins were still in the womb, the decision was made for them to be aborted. Although a tragic situation, this opens up the research field for scientists to try and understand how something like that could happen. 

While I can't even imagine what this family must have went through and what they had to consider, I am deeply saddened that they made the decision to abort the pregnancy. It is a lot of work to raise twins, let alone to raise twins with one of them having a mental illness. I can understand and respect the fact that for that couple they felt that it would be too much. As far as the scientific side of this situation, I am intrigued that something like this could even happen. I'm sure that scientists will be looking into this and try to figure out how this could even be possible. The field of genetics will keep expanding with new situations like these constantly being discovered.

Link to the article: http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-twins-down-syndrome-genetics-20140416,0,6762726.story

Link to related article: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/down-syndrome

Study Detects a Gene Linked to Alzheimer

A gene variant gene involved in Alzheimer's disease has been detected through study of Dominicans in Manhattan. The families have about three times the usual incidence of Alzheimers, found by Dr. Richard Mayeux of Columbia University in 1994. Dominican families are easier to study from because in the Dominican Republic, the island is a single, long-isolated population in which gene variants are easier to detect. Having screened 6000 people, the researchers found that in four of their groups people with Alzheimer had distinguishable genetic markers in just one of the seven genes, known as SORL1. Patients with the variant forms of genes produce less of that genes protein than usual, stemming to a different pattern and allowing certain proteins in nerve cells known as the amyloid precursors protein to be converted into toxic form. Researchers have not isolated the specific mutation that affects the gene, but they believe it reduces production of the genes protein and does not harm the protein itself. There have been genes related to Alzheimer such as apolipoprotein E. SORL1 is more robustly related with Alzheimer than all the other gene except apoli.E.

It is truly great hearing that there are more genes that are related to Alzheimer being found. The more genes that we are able to detect, the more possibility of drugs and diagnostics test there can be.

Modern Humans vs. Neanderthals

A new human genetics study led by Dr. Liram Carmel at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem compared limb bone DNA of a modern living human,  a Neanderthal, and a stone-age Eurasian human known as a Denisovan to better understand how well each species relates to one another. They found that the key difference in the 99.84% similarity between modern humans and Neanderthals is the presence of gene activation patterns similar to an "on/off" switch. The research team found that the remaining 0.16% difference in our DNA is merely a certain portion of gene that modern humans have activated while Neanderthals were not, and vice versa. This pattern of activation has helped contribute to the human epigenome, which differs from the regular human genome in that it is concerned only with those genes that are turned on or off even as the molecular sequence remains the same.

I think the minimal difference between modern humans and our ancestors is always interesting to think about. In thousands of years of evolution, our DNA sequence has only changed by a few tenths of a percent, and yet that has given rise to endless advancements both physically and especially mentally. More impressively, recent research on the human epigenome has helped advance knowledge in how gene silencing leads to cancer, and how twins can differ so much. To me, the epigenome seems like a solid place to turn for more answers on how we can understands and hopefully beat diseases like cancer.

Here is the original article from Chicago Tribune.
Here's a cool timeline of human evolution with some more info on major milestones.

Mutation Can Increase Risk of Aortic Rupture

It has long been known that some people are more susceptible to heartbreak than others are. But research from the Yale School of Medicine and Celera Diagnostics has revealed that a certain gene mutation can make some people more likely to suffer from a literal break in their heart-specifically, ruptures in the wall of the aorta, the main artery of the heart and the largest one found in the human body. Thoracic aortic aneurysms, or bulges in the wall of the aorta, can develop completely undetected and lead to full ruptures. If these ruptures are not treated immediately, death can become imminent.

A protein called FBN-1 is imperative for providing strength to the walls of the aorta. After studying hundreds of patients at the Yale medical center, scientists confirmed that a genetic variation called rs2118181 put patients at a higher risk for thoracic aortic aneurysms and subsequent ruptures. While surgeries for these ruptures can work wonders, identifying people who are at risk early on will be an important step for ensuring that more lives are saved than lost in the future.

Secondary article

Plants evolve ways to control embryo growth

In this article, plants have evolved ways to control embryo growth and development by emitting information from surrounding cells. Female sex cells and placenta like endosperm contained within plant seeds send out specific signals to developing embrtos to help with there growth. This new information changes changes are understanding of plant development whci could allow for better breeding of plant types. Because of the changes in the environment as well as our climate, there is always need for more plants in the aid of oxygen as well as many other areas. Plantembryos are found within seeds and once germinated, they give rise to an adult plant. Before the discovery, the ability of non emryonic plant cells to direct embryo groth was unrecognized, but now they have valuble information that neighoring cells can directly act with and influence embryo cells. The next step is to indentify the embryonic factors that respond to thses non embryonic signals and understrand there mode of action.

http://phys.org/news/2014-04-free-seed-ossi-nurtures-patent.html

Some immune cells only defend one organ

In this article, scientists have discovered a new way the immune system may fight cancers and viral infections. Research has been done on mice and in mice it shows that some organs have the immunological equivalent of "neighorhood police" speacialized squads of defenders that patrol only one area, a single organ, instead of an entire body. If one group of cells absolutly needs a transcription factor to exist, while another group of cells dosent care if that factor is gone, that strongly suggests that the two groups of cells use disticnt developmental pathways and are therfore different. The results point to at least four types of natural killer cells rather than just one major type long recongnized by immunologists. After discovering this new addition to the body this changes some of the concepts and thoughts of many reaserchers and may help with different cancers.


http://www.nature.com/icb/index.html

Stressful Environments May Lead To Genetic Defects

A recent study done by a research team led by Daniel Notterman examined the genetic effects of stressful upbringings. They examined 40 9-year-old black boys and found that those who grew up in disadvantaged environments have 19 percent shorter telomeres than their advantaged peers. Telomeres are DNA sequences which live at the end of each chromosome, protecting the ends from damage and vary in length by person, and shrink with age. They also reported that boys with genetic sensitivities to their environment have shorter telomeres after experiencing stressful social environments tha the telomeres of boys without the genetic sensitivities.

Notterman and his team limited there sample size to those that had given saliva samples at age 9, those who had black or African American mothers, and those who had provided complete information about their social environments. Of the 40 boys, half were raised in disadvantaged environments which was characterized as low household income, low maternal education, an unstable family structure and harsh parenting. Another Professor who studies population health stated that this work adds to the growing body of research related to the role of chronic stress in health inequalities, especially among the poor.

I think this is a wonderful study because there are too few studies focused on African American children in this context. This type of study really highlights the importance of early intervention to moderate disparities in social and educational opportunities because it really is shocking how profound the effect is by such a young age. At just 9 years of age these genetic effects from chronic stress are already prevalent and may lead to accelerated aging and higher susceptibility to illnesses. It’s also a very interesting fact that this study was done using saliva rather than blood. This innovation can lead to more simplistic studies of our telomeres at various points in time and can indicate how our social environment may affecting our DNA. In my opinion any further research that increases our knowledge of how these telomeres and how they affect our body is exciting because knowing more about a potential biological clock can have a profound results.

Article Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140409103331.html

Related Link: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/chromosomes/telomeres/

The Genetics of Fragile X Syndrome

This article discusses one of the most common forms of inherited mental disabilities in humans, Fragile X Syndrome. This syndrome is an X-linked trait, so generally males and females who inherit two genes for this trait are affected more than female carriers are. The severity of symptoms can vary in anyone who has this abnormality. The severity is dependent on how many codon repeats are found on the FMR1 gene on the X chromosome.

Fragile X Syndrome causes affected individuals to not make enough of a protein called fragile x mental retardation protein. This protein attaches to ribosomes between the 30s and 50s subunits to regulate protein synthesis. Before this research, done at UC San Diego, scientists only knew that a deficiency of this protein resulted in proteins that regulate brain functions being synthesized incorrectly. The fact the the protein binds between the 30s and 50s subunits of the ribosome is important, as new proteins are synthesized by passing mRNA through the two subunits. These proteins are imperative to normal cognitive function in humans-and fruit flies. Researchers used fruit flies in the laboratory to map where the protein binds to the ribosomes. This information will hopefully provide the tools necessary in the future to create new treatments for this affliction and help restore at least some cognitive function in those who have lost it.

Secondary article

Jealousy: it's in your genes

So imagine this, your wife or husband just returned back from their "business" trip and they just confessed to you that they had sex with a mystery man/woman. How would this make you feel? Would it make you feel better that they would never see this person again and it was only a one time thing? Many of us would feel jealousy and maybe a bit more such as rage or deep sadness. But this is normal, I mean, how couldn't you be just a little jealous. Is this universality of jealousy mean that it could be programmed into our DNA? A new study investigates over 3000 pair of finish twins and comparing the answers given by each group of twins the researchers were able to show that one third of the difference in levels of jealousy are likely to be genetic in origins. Women reported being more jealous than men but men were far more fearful that their partners had been sexually unfaithful rather than emotional infidelity. Why? Because in the internal case of reproduction. To make it short and simple, men unlike women, cannot be certain that they are the recipient of the child and are naturally more perturbed of the thought of their partners being sexually unfaithful rather than emotionally hurt because it would jeopardize the successful transmissions of their genes. You may not be feeling this at the time or even thinking this, but deep down this is one of the main reasons you are jealous.


The beginnings of our lives also play a major role of whether you get jealous such as the way we were brought up or the people around us. I know I have been brought up to never be jealous when my brothers got things that I didn't, or whether someone else gets a bigger slice of pizza than me. That has not stopped be from feeling jealous, but allowing others to see that I am. Even though I have been brought up to not become jealous, there is always a inner me that will always be jealous of certain things, and this new idea of jealousy being programmed into out genes would make sense in that the feeling of jealousy isn't
going away anytime soon.

Exercise is Passed Down Genetically

     

      Scientists at the University of Missouri recently found that active motivation to physically exercise increases brain development. They previously found that the motivation to exercise is passed down genetically. Through several tests researchers gathered rats with the natural desire to run on the wheel much more often than the other rats that stayed away from the wheel and were much more immobile. The scientists then bred the rats together through ten generations and found that the offspring with the traits of the lazier generation had much less brain activity then the ones with the traits of the active rats. This leads scientists to believe that being more active at a younger age causes much stronger brain development.

       I never thought of exercise as being related to genes. This research is very interesting because if more studies are put into the effect of exercise on children, maybe more parents will encourage their children to get out and get active. My sister spends most of her time on my family’s couch watching T.V. I believe it would be more beneficial for her to be outside riding her bike. For an overview of how exercise is known to help your brain, go here.  

The birth of flesh-eating bacteria

Flesh-eating bacteria was not always so mean.  At one point in its evolution, it was just a benign microorganism.  Recently,a group of scientists from the Houston Methodist Research Institute conducted of of the biggest bacterial genome analyses where they have been able to pin point the birth of the flesh-eating bacteria.  They found that it was created in the 1980's where the progenitor went through a series of steps until 1983.  It was here the is acquired certain genes that produce two toxins.  These toxins cause the affects of the flesh-eating bacteria. These findings are backed up by the fact that since 1983, there have been several outbreaks worldwide. Scientists are hoping that with this information, they will be able to help stop this bacteria or find a cure.

Natural Genetic Engineering In Plants

A follow-up study to a 2004 investigation on ferns shows that over millions of years, there has been a completely natural gene transfer between plant species, something that is usually artificially done. In this case, scientist Fay-Wei Li has discovered that since the evolutionary explosion of ferns roughly 100 million years ago, ferns have picked up a light-sensitive protein from the primitive hornwort plant. This protein, known as neochrome, allows for more sensitive light absorption, which means that plants carrying it can thrive even on dim forest floors. Dr. Li searched for any gene related to neochrome in fern species, but could not find one. However, the protein-coding gene was abundant in hornworts, which are only distantly related to ferns. Dr. Li hypothesized that ferns picked up the gene by growing in extremely intimate contact with hornworts, which fits a growing trend found by botanists in recent years. The results seem to be convincing, and Dr. li hopes this study will prompt other geneticists to search for more cases of gene transfer.

Though I'm not big on plants, I find the idea of gene transfer interesting. As Dr. Li's colleague Dr. Jeffrey Palmer states, "It's like swapping out one part of a machine for another part made in another country." If this process occurs naturally on a frequent basis, it could definitely help solidify and tweak the artificial process occurring in the lab. I think it's a cool example of co-evolution when two species can exchange genes for mutual adaptation. 

Here is the original article.

Here is an article explaining the artificial process in genetically-modified crops. 

Target locked on 'MicroRNA'

On April 15th, Medical News Today released an article called, "'MicroRNA' could be key target for bowel cancer treatment." Scientists have found an important gene that adds fuel to the fire of cancer genes that leads to the growth of bowel cancers, and that gene is called microRNA 135b. The researchers think that certain drugs could stop the effect of multiple cancer prone mutations. Their test included 485 patients with bowel cancer and they tried to find any type of microRNA 135b. What they found was four times as high in tumors than in healthy tissues and those patients with high levels like that lived the shortest amongst other patients. Then the researchers halted microRNA and found that tumor growth depleted, and also found that there were no side effects in the mice that were treated.

MicroRNA are a part of multiple cellular processes and regulate gene activity as well. The study also states that microRNA 135b is used by other cancer mutations (APC, PI3KCA, SRC, and p53). Because of this discovery, testing patients for levels of microRNA 135b might help them catch bowel cancer early to start the necessary treatment for it before it gets too much to handle. In London, Professor Paul Workman--who is the Deputy Chief of Executive of the Institute of Cancer Research--says that this could open new doors in cancer treatment and help identify which patients have a more violent bowel cancer. He also states that this study has shown that microRNA takes over multiple pathways that could go bad in colon cancer and he hopes that this research will also help patients with colon cancer.

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I hope that this new research helps patients across the globe with this type of cancer. I also hope that understanding and inhibiting microRNA 135b will result in a less painful and faster treatment for patients with cancer. I think it's about time that researchers are understanding more and more about cancers and how tumors form and etc. Hopefully in the next coming years we will slowly defeat cancer and this study is a good starting point to that goal.

To read the original article click here: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/275501.php

To learn more about bowel cancer click here: http://www.webmd.com/colorectal-cancer/default.htm?names-dropdown=

Breaking Bad Mitichondria

In this article, researchers have identified a mechanism that explains why people with the Hepatitis c virus get liver disease and why the virus is able to persist i the body for so long. The pathogen attacks the liver cells energy centers, mitochondria, which does not allow for the cell to fight off infections or diseases. Hepatitis c causes liver cancer. After the mitochondria are done being attacked the proteins tell the mitochondria to eliminate the damaged area, but the process to repair ends up aiding the virus making things worse. Mitochondria convert food onto a form of energy which is used by the cells. The virus stimulates the production of protein that induces viral damaged mitochondria. Although mitochondria help with fighting off the infections and diseases it also helps with keeping the virus infected cell alive. The virus is able to use the mitochondria to keep reproducing new cells and amino acids to help fuel its continuous replication and virulence. Understanding mitochondria is what keeps the virus going when attaining the hepatitis c disease.


http://jcs.biologists.org/content/123/9/1389.abstract

In sex-reversed cave insects, females have the penises

In this article , on April 17, Brazilian insects which represent four distinct but related species in the genus Neotrolga, are the first example of an animal with sex reversed genitalia. There have been many sex role reversal in different animals, but Neotrolgla is the only example in which the intromittment organ is also reversed says Kazunori from University of Japan. During sexual intercourse which lasts 40-70 hours, female insects insert an elaborate, penis like organ into males much reduced vagina like opening. This makes in advantages for females to mate more because of their higher nutrient count as well as sperm count. 

It will be important why only the Neotrolgla is the only to be a sex reversal role which elaborates a female penis. 

http://www.wired.com/2014/04/scientists-discover-bugs-with-sex-reversed-genitalia-doing-it-for-70-hours/http://www.wired.com/2014/04/scientists-discover-bugs-with-sex-reversed-genitalia-doing-it-for-70-hours/

Where'd You Go With My DNA?

     According to the New York Times this article, shows the cultural gap between the impoverished Havasupai Indians who view their blood as sacred and the Arizona state university researchers who helicoptered in to their Grand Canyon home to collect it was at the heart of a lawsuit over the scope of a genetic study that ended a few weeks ago with a settlement for the tribe.Issues surfaced recently among a range of research subjects who have learned that their genetic material is being used in ways they weren’t consulted about. A proposal of an international tribunal akin to the Helsinki human rights agreement, which would lay out the ethical obligations to research participants.Courts have ruled that individuals do not have a property right to their cells once they are taken in the course of medical care, under federal guidelines, you do have a right to know how they will be used. A controversial matter is the fact that, is their a possibility of DNA data remaining anonymous.
     The issue with Havasupai case was whether an Arizona State geneticist had obtained permission from tribal members to use their DNA for anything other than finding reasons for type 2 diabetes in their tribe. Over   200 of the 650 member tribe signed a consent form stating that their blood could be used to “study the causes of behavioral/medical disorders,” but many said they had believed they were donating it only for the study of diabetes, which tribal members suffer from at extremely high rates.

     It is interesting that the tribal member's are offended that the researches used their DNA for genes involving with schizophrenia and other human diseases. I do believe individuals should have a right to know what their DNA are being used for, even if techniquely this tribe would have never found out, only due to a professor from the university that notified a tribe member. There's also a debate if these concluding results should be a part of public record. Although, approximately more than 90 percent of individuals involved in research are willing to allow their data to be used for a range of biomedical research. The underlying issue is, when the individual is not asked and find out later that they find out their results elsewhere other than was the initial agreement was. What happens when federal and/or grant money has already been spent on the research? A solution to this, is to train scientists to communicate with the public and include them on progresses/explanations to avoid ethical issues.

For more information pertaining to this lawsuit please visit, http://genetics.ncai.org/case-study/havasupai-Tribe.cfm.