Muscle-building effect of protein beverages

Many studies recently have been conducting the effects of drinking high protein beverages on enhanced muscle growth; as well as, the effects of amino acid supplements on muscle growth. This specific study, conducted by Stuart Phillips, focused on the amino acid leucine and how it can influence protein synthesis. Furthermore, they focused on the amounts of protein consumed, as well as, the times at which they consumed to determine the effects of that on muscle growth. They broke up participants into groups, one group took shots of protein drink (2.5 g, 10 times) throughout their workouts, another group drank a protein shake after their workout with a low amount of leucine in it (25 g of protein, 1.87 g of leucine), and the last group drank a protein shake after their workout with a high amount of leucine in it (25 g of protein, 3.5 g of leucine). Post exercise muscle protein synthesis was evaluated and it showed that consuming a large amount of protein post exercise increased muscle protein synthesis compared to periodically consuming small doses of protein. Furthermore, the groups that had a higher amount of leucine had a 33% higher muscle protein synthesis compared to the group with the lower amount of leucine in their protein shake. Thus, it as concluded that protein synthesis can be manipulated via dietary action, as well as, it shows that leucine plays an important role in stimulating muscle growth post exercise.

This study shed some light on the role of amino acids and muscle growth. Theoretically, it all makes sense that the more amino acids and protein you consume the more muscle growth you will see (with exercise). However, I was not sure if it necessarily worked that way; my thinking was just because you consume more amino acids does not necessarily mean it will stimulate muscle growth. Furthermore, it does not necessarily mean they will be used, there is still the possibility they will just be excreted. However, it seems these researchers identified a specific amino acid that is directly used for muscle growth after exercise. It would be interesting to see, if there were more amino acids added would there be a greater effect or would it cause the body to excrete the amino acids due to a high amount in the body? Furthermore, does it depend on their genetic background whether or not they would have increased muscle mass due to these supplements?

The Genetics of Skeletal Muscle Development and Regeneration

Scientists at Brigham and Women’s Hospital discovered that there was reduced muscle growth and impaired regeneration in zebrafish larvae that had a mutation in DDX27. They discovered this mutation and its affects using genetic mapping. The researchers found that DDX27 is associated with protein synthesis and ribosome biogenesis in the skeletal muscles. Protein production and regulation is disrupted by the loss of DDX27, which affects the function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle mass is maintained by a balance between degradation and protein synthesis, a disruption of this balance leads to a loss in skeletal mass. The loss of skeletal muscle mass is a common component of many diseases; it often leads to a reduction of muscle function, which is debilitating and can lead to death. "A major hindrance in the development of effective therapies for skeletal muscle diseases thus far has been a lack of understanding of the biological processes that promote muscle growth and repair," said Vandana Gupta. "Our study is one of the first efforts to provide specificity to the processes controlling protein synthesis in muscles, which will hopefully allow for the development of effective targeted treatments for skeletal muscle diseases." The researchers plan to do further research to look at how protein synthesis is altered in different diseases and they hope to target an approach to regulate DDX27 pathways which will allow restoration of muscle growth and regeneration.

For more information on the genetics of skeletal muscle growth and regeneration, take a look at this scientific paper by Stephen M. Roth. 

How Clever are Octopuses?

In recent studies, researchers have discovered that octopuses are able to change the message sent from their DNA, instead of following it like most organisms. Scientist have suggested that because octopuses can alter their genetics, that its a reasonable thought for why they are so intelligent. Octopus are capable of solving complex puzzles and changing colors to communicate. The genetic change occurs in the protein synthesis- where RNA is coded into amino acids, and that is where octopuses do not follow the genetic instruction. RNA editing is known to affect the nervous system, which might be a necessity of these organisms lives in order to live.

I think the discovery of RNA editing in cephalopods changes the idea of importance of RNA editing. With this discovery, I think this gain a better understanding of genetic sequences, but also broadens the concept to learn more about these intelligent organisms and others.


Article
Original article

Autism spectrum disorders: New genetic cause of identified

Autism is a general term for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. Diagnosis of all forms of the disorder are put under one umbrella called autism spectrum disorder or ASD. Autism appears during the early stages of brain development around 2-3 years old and affects 1 in 68 American children. Under the website for the organization, Autism Speaks, they state some factors that can increase the risk for the child. But cases of autism are complex.
In a new study published in Cell, a team of researchers led by Gaia Novarino, professor at IST Austria, has identified a new genetic cause of ASD. With her team, they were able to identify mutations in a gene called SLC7A5 in several patients born to consanguineous marriages and diagnosed with syndromic autism. This gene transports a certain type of amino acids into the brain. The researchers performed studies on mice to understand how the mutation lead to autism. They removed the gene altogether from the mice and discovered that is caused an interference with protein synthesis in neurons. As a result, the mice showed symptoms including reduced social interaction, behavior changes. The team then reintroduced the missing SLC7A5 gene into the mice and after three weeks, improvements in behavior were observed. The researchers are excited about their results. They've found a potential treatment for a form of ASD but only in mice. It would take many more years of research until this process can be performed on human patients. Prior to the study, ASDs were always thought to be irreversible conditions.  
All in all, medical research has progressed positively in the right direction. Even though there aren't cures, mechanisms are just as important pieces of information on disorders and diseases.

New Cellular Defense Mechanism against Stress

     

     Scientists studying neuronal malfunctioning, long thought to be a result of a cell’s reaction to stress, may have unlocked a new understanding and even a treatment plan for the future. Science Daily explains that neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s are caused in part by a cell’s reaction – or lack thereof – to stress. Scientists from Harvard and NYU have identified a protein modification that signals for the cell to begin protein synthesis, in turn strengthening and protecting the cell from attack.

     Oxidative attack – the focus of this research – is when cells are exposed to hazardous conditions (pollution, cigarette smoke, radiation). Exposure to these stimulates the stress response in cells to begin degradation of weak or damaged proteins. It is speculated that with less impaired proteins in the way, the cell can begin protein synthesis and restructure itself. Using this new research, scientists may be able to harness the removal of such proteins and one day focus on a treatment plan for neurodegenerative diseases. 

The Genetics of Fragile X Syndrome

This article discusses one of the most common forms of inherited mental disabilities in humans, Fragile X Syndrome. This syndrome is an X-linked trait, so generally males and females who inherit two genes for this trait are affected more than female carriers are. The severity of symptoms can vary in anyone who has this abnormality. The severity is dependent on how many codon repeats are found on the FMR1 gene on the X chromosome.

Fragile X Syndrome causes affected individuals to not make enough of a protein called fragile x mental retardation protein. This protein attaches to ribosomes between the 30s and 50s subunits to regulate protein synthesis. Before this research, done at UC San Diego, scientists only knew that a deficiency of this protein resulted in proteins that regulate brain functions being synthesized incorrectly. The fact the the protein binds between the 30s and 50s subunits of the ribosome is important, as new proteins are synthesized by passing mRNA through the two subunits. These proteins are imperative to normal cognitive function in humans-and fruit flies. Researchers used fruit flies in the laboratory to map where the protein binds to the ribosomes. This information will hopefully provide the tools necessary in the future to create new treatments for this affliction and help restore at least some cognitive function in those who have lost it.

Secondary article

Autism-Like Behaviors Reversed in Mice: New Hope for Understanding Autism

Autism is defined as a developmental disorder that appears in the first 3 years of life, and affects the brain's normal development of social and communication skills. “According to the U.S.-based Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 in 88 children suffer from autism spectrum disorder, and the disorder is reported to occur in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. Autism spectrum disorder’s are almost five times more common among boys (1 in 54) than among girls (1 in 252).” According to Science Daily, Autism can be rectified in adult mice with compounds restraining protein synthesis, or with gene-therapy focusing on neuroligins.

The study took place at McGill University and the University of Montreal. In the study they used a mouse replica where a key gene controlling initiation of protein synthesis was erased. In the mice, the study showed that the production of neuroligins was increased. They also came to the conclusion that neuroligins are very important for the configuration and regulation of connections known as synapses between neuronal cells in the brain and essential for the maintenance of the balance in the transmission of information from neuron to neuron. The researchers have linked together protein synthesis and autism spectrum disorder. They used mice in the study, which showed that abnormally high synthesis of a group of neuronal proteins called neuroligins results in symptoms similar to those diagnosed in ASD. They also figured out that autism-like behaviors could be cured in mice with the proper compounds which inhibited protein synthesis. They could also be cured by gene-therapy focusing on the neuroligins.

The researchers final finding was that dysregulated synthesis of neuroligins augments synaptic activity, resulting in an imbalance between excitation and inhibition in single brain cells, opening up exciting new avenues for research that may unlock the secrets of autism. This study can be used to answer all of the unanswered questions that autism disorders have left for us. Also this article really interested me because it is amazing how these finding can make such a huge impact on the world.

New Hope For Understanding Autism

A crucial link between protein synthesis and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has been discovered by researchers from McGill University and the University of Montreal. A new study in mice has shown that high synthesis of neuronal proteins called neuroligins can lead to symptoms similar to though in autism spectrum disorders. By inhibiting protein synthesis and also with gene-therapy targeting neuroligins it was also shown in mice that these autism behaviors can be reversed.

Autism spectrum disorders make up multiple neurodevelopment diseases that affect social interactions, communication and repetitive interests or behavior. Boys are five times more likely to suffer from ASD but on average 1 in 88 children suffer from some type of autism spectrum disorder. A professor from McGill stated that his lab was doing research on the role of dysregulated protein synthesis in cancer etiology but discovered that similar mechanisms may be shown in the development of ASD. This discovery was the first link to translational control of neuroligins with altered synaptic function. By using compounds previously developed for cancer treatment to reduce protein synthesis and the addition of non-replicating viruses to stop exaggerated synthesis of neuroligins, the ASD- like symptoms in mice were reversed. Researchers also found that dysregulated syntheses if neuroligins augments synaptic activity which results in an imbalance between excitation and inhibition in single brain cells, which may give more knowledge onto the secrets of autism.

Autism spectrum disorders occur very frequently in children and I personally know a few people suffering from the disease. This article hits close to home because I have watched my close friends sister grow up with the disease and my mom is also a teacher for students with autism. Kids with autism typically never stop fighting and it would be amazing to be able to find a way to reverse or prevent the symptoms of their disorder.