Who's a good... Wolf?

The loyal dog's we know today, are relatives to the wolf. They are our trusty companions but why? Where did the floppy eared, big eyed, goof we know today come from (yes there are dogs that are bread to have ears sticking up as well)? Evidence points to dogs being our longest and oldest companions being domesticated not only from a single area but from multiple points all around the world.

Many have hypothesized how wolfs ended up becoming domesticated. Some believe that we actively tried to domesticate them to be used for hunting, helping our ancestors and acted on their own accord. Others believe that the wolf  (some) began to follow our trail of scraps left behind in search of food themselves and that they had a trait in their genome that was more tame that would allow for us to allow for them to approach us.

From studies done we know that the Eurasian grey wolves around 10,000 to 40,000 years ago were domesticated. Dogs that we know of today like the Doberman, Maltese, Pitbull, Pomeranian, and ect. were not what the early traits were sought out for physical aesthetics but rather only that they do not hurt us and are friendly. It should be known that the traits for behavior and physical attributes are linked in a way. They are the NCC or neural crest cells, and biologist have focus in on these as they believe this is what was the catalyst for the domestication syndrome.

"NCCs are stem cells found in every embryo that show up first at the crest, or top edge, of the neural tube, which will eventually become the brain and spinal cord. As the embryo develops, a number of different genes signal NCCs to activate and move, along specific paths, to different areas of the body to perform different tasks. the range of activities that NCCs do it enormous: the adrenal and pituitary systems, which are involved in aggression, fear and other behaviors, are derived from NCCs, but these cells are also involved in regulating physical traits such as pigmentation of skin and hair."(1)

The group of scientists involved in this study decided to look into 429 different genes in forty three wild village dogs from four different continents. Focusing on genes that act in early embryogenesis. They then compared these village dogs to "ancient dogs older than 5,000 years" (1). What they found was a similarity in their genome sugesting that these traits were the result of original domestication. This shows that the later attempts of domestication to different specific breads was not the cause for the tame like trait we see in dogs. 

"Selecting for behavioral traits such as reduced fear of humans, a key element of tameness, favored certain genetic signatures. In turn, those genetic signatures changed how the NCCs they activated actually migrated around the body and performed."(1)

Even with this new information we do not know how domestication took place but we do have more insight into it. We may never know why or how specifically this domestication of our fury friends happened, but what we do know is that they were part of our journey so far and are not going anywhere in the near future. The dogs we know of today will continue to change in features as we deem to be necessary/aesthetically pleasing.

P.s DO NOT try to domesticate wild wolves.

references:
1- http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2018/06/27/dog-genes/#.W2ELUtJKhPY
2- https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-018-0535-2

How do jumping genes cause disease, drive evolution?

so in this article, we learn more about what jumping genes are and how they function, we find this out because a group of researchers at Carnegie Institution of Science was able to track the jumping genes in Drosphilia Melangoster. They did this by taking piRNA, RNA that suppresses activity of jumping genes, and eliminating it so that the activity of the jumping genes was increased. This showed how the jumping genes were invading the nursing cells in developing eggs, and that is how they were mutating genes and causing certain diseases and cancer. Although there is the non-coding suppressor piRNA they still manage to attack and move within the nursing cells and developing eggs.
I find this to be extremely interesting because if they can find the cause of mutating and invasive genes such as the jumping gene early, then maybe we can find a ways to isolate it or fight against it completely.

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      Diabetes is on the rise in both, adults and children. In 2015, it was estimated that over 30 million adults were diabetic. From 1980-2014, the total number of people affected by diabetes quadrupled. Scientists from the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona have used gene therapy to reverse the disease in rodents. Gene therapy works by introducing new genetic material into the cells, therefore creating new proteins, or by offsetting the already present bad genes. In an experiment with mice, scientists were able to deliver a gene called FGF21, and in doing so, the mice had lost weight and their insulin resistance was lowered. 

     This research is important because diabetes and obesity are affecting more people than ever, and these rates do not appear to be dropping. Both of these conditions can lead to more health problems, making gene therapy a hopeful solution. 

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Inked Mice Hint at How Tattoos Persit in People

French researchers suggest that tattoos are able to stay on skin due to a hand off of immune cells between generations known as macrophages. If proven true, this could overturn the idea that ink persists in connective tissue. Mice were tattooed on their tails with green ink to see how waste-disposing macrophages in the skin would respond. This was done by Immunologist Sandrine Henri. The study showed that macrophages gobbled up the ink but did not remove it. The cells held onto the ink until researchers killed the cells. About 90 days later, new macrophages moved in and absorbed the ink. This is what preserves the ink. Further research needs to be done says Desmond Tobin, a dermatologist. Macrophages that live in Mice do not live as long as those in humans. The persistence of those cells may be responsible for preserving ink in skin. These studies may help improve tattoo removal. With the combination of laser therapy and getting rid of skin macrophages, the ink could be removed.

I think this is fascinating because all this time we thought the connective tissue absorbed the ink, meanwhile there were cells behind it. This discovery could help better understand tattoos and help people who want to get rid of their tattoos. During these times, many people have tattoos. They are becoming more popular as society integrates them into an everyday style. Some people may jump into getting a tattoo and regret it later on. I think this discovery will be helpful for those who want tattoos removed.

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There's a Genetic Explanation for Why Warmer Nests Turn Turtles Female

It has been suggested that warmer nests turn turtles into females rather than sex chromosomes. A temperature-responsive gene has been found which sets turtle embryos to be either male or female. Since the 1960's it has been in question how temperature can switch sex for turtles and other reptiles. Previous studies showed genes behaving different in opposite sexes but nobody understood exactly which gene controlled sex. A group of Chinese researchers Led by Chutian Ge developed a way to lessen the activity of certain genes by injecting viruses of artificial RNA into eggs. This technique was used in red-eared sliders, resulting in a sex reversal; what should have yielded males, turned out as females. The specific gene being studied is the Kdm6b gene. Scientists found that this gene behaves differently as temperature rises but does not behave the same way in all tissues. So it is suggested that the gene doesn't directly sense temperature, but, receives messages from another gene which reacts to temperature, directing the Kdm6b gene's behavior. A study found that the gene influenced bearded dragons' sexual fate.

I find this study interesting because before owning a bearded dragon, I did a lot of research about this reptile so I could fully understand their needs. They did mention that they can sometimes go through sex reversal which I thought was interesting. While now also owning two turtles, I knew I had to read this article. I would like to find out what other species have a similar gene that can cause a similar event to occur.

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Changing the coarse of a leggy lizard

In 2017 an array of hurricanes that hit one after the other hurricane Harvey, then Irma, and Maria, made its impact on not just the weather but also the species that it disrupted. Biologists at Washington university in St. Louis, have released a publication about hurricanes and how it affects lizard population. The biologists had just previously done a survey of the Anolis scriptus (a small bodied common lizard), found in the Turks and Caicos archipelago. When the group came back to Turk and Caicos after the hurricanes that swept through, they discovered their original data (the survey they conducted data) had changed. (1)(2)

When coming back the group of biologists believed that the storm would impact smaller toe sized, smaller body and leg sized lizards, but almost the opposite happened. "The prediction was that if we saw any changes, they would be changes in the features that help lizards hold on -- they would be related to clinging ability... For example, the sticky toe pads on their fingers and toes, maybe they would be larger." said Colin Donihue a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University. (1)
However, that was not the case when they returned after six weeks. They discovered that Anolis scriptus now had longer fore legs, shorter bones between their hips and knees of their back legs, and had over all smaller bodies. "The observations were statistically significant and consistent at both island sites." (1) This signifying that it is not just a happen stance that this version of the population survived, but that their phenotype was more adaptive to the hurricane.

Johnathan Losos, the William H. Danforth Distinguished Professor at Washington University and professor of biology in Arts and Sciences, said "With regard to evolution, the question is whether hurricanes cause selective mortality: do individuals with certain traits survive better than individuals with different traits? The alternative possibility -- that devastation is so massive that mortality is indiscriminate, not favoring some individuals over others -- is certainly possible." (1)

This is a classic example of how natural disaster occurrences influence certain phenotype's to live on, while others die off. It also shows that during this hurricane and this specific species that this was a natural selection based mortality and not just indiscriminate. Losos Still hypothesizes that even though this is a pretty clear showing on natural selection, there could be other factors involved: "maybe the hurricane blew in lizards with bigger toepads and shorter hindlegs from another island. Or perhaps the act of clinging to the branches in high winds actually caused their forelegs to get longer. We can't rule these possibilities out because this study was the result of serendipity, rather than specifically being designed to test the effect of hurricanes. Still, hurricane-induced natural selection seems like the best explanation for these findings," Losos said. (1)

There was also a pilot study that was conducted that exposed lizards to hurricane-force winds. It was shown through this study that when hurricane- force winds are hurled at a lizard it grasped on to the perch: the ones with longer hindlimbs were more vulnerable to the gusts of wind and pushed off due to their back legs ending up dangling (creating a drag a negative force that was to great to hold on) while the front limbs had to do all the heavy holding. The study showed that to be more hurricane proof for a lizard one needed to have shorter hindlegs and longer forelimbs. This showing more evidence for natural disaster influencing phenotype by natural selection.

Natural disasters are happening more and more frequently due to global warming, and these kinds of research are important for the future and will most likely be an important area of study. 

References:

1- https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180726090037.htm

2- https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0352-3

As D.I.Y. Gene Editing Gains Popularity, 'Someone Is Going to Get Hurt'

DNA tinkering has become viral now that the technology is cheaper and more accessible. Anyone can perform gene editing in their homes. This, however, has led to misfires. For example, a biotech executive injected himself with a herpes treatment that was supposed to cure him, but it ended up increasing the amount of virus in his system. This is dangerous because of the fact that anyone, especially non-scientists, can gene edit and not know what will happen; things can go drastically wrong. Or, even worse, they can create a bioweapon. The University of Alberta already created horsepox, a relative of smallpox. Experts fear that the more skill amateur biologists acquire, the more they will be a threat because of the increase in today's world abuse.

I believe that everyone should have the right to experiment on genes, but at the same time, I believe that only biologists/experts should because of how dangerous it is to create new DNAs. People might also use it for the wrong reasons.

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Gene edited Pigs are resistant to viruses

Through gene editing, scientists have been able to produce pigs that are resistant to PRRS. PRRS stands for Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory syndrome. This affliction can cause breathing problems and even death in young pigs. This disease is considered to be one the world's most costly animal diseases. While this seems to be a great key to helping pork producers, some farmers are concerned.

Helen Browning of the soil association fears that this genetic edit might result in less humane treatment of the animals. Browning has been farming pigs organically for 30 years and she experienced that pigs kept outdoors with a higher quality of life were less likely to develop the disease. Browning feels that if the animals are resistant, there will be little incentive to treat them humanely.

While Scientists and Farmers alike are trying to integrate these swine into the marketplace, they are still years away. Much like the debate surrounding GMOs, there is a pretty large disparity between public perception and fact. Many conversations need to occur before legislation is molded to cater to these changes. It seems that many of these genetic breakthroughs are moving faster than our government regulation.

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Killing cancer with cancer

Everyone knows the saying you don't fight fire with fire, but what if you can fight cancer with cancer. A Group of researchers at Brigham and Woman's Hospital believes that one can use the homing ability of cancer cells to find and kill other cancer cells. They believe they can do this by using CRISPR-engineered therapeutic cancer cells. These new cancer cells then find other cancer cells as they do normally however then using what the researchers refer to as a "kill switch", terminated the other cancer. This is most useful when the cancer is in a hard to get to location and other methods would not be as useful to the patient.

This research was done on mice, using the mice's own cancer cells (and reprogramming them), found that the engineered cells moved toward the mice's cancer in the brain then targeted and killed the recurrent and metastatic cancer. They target "cell surface receptors specific to the tumor site" (2)

Corresponding author Khalid Shah MS, PhD, director of the Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI) in the BWH Department of Neurosurgery and faculty at Harvard Medical School and Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI), "Cell-based therapies hold tremendous promise for delivering therapeutic agents to tumors and may provide treatment options where standard therapy has failed. With our technique, we show it is possible to reverse-engineer a patient's own cancer cells and use them to treat cancer. We think this has many implications and could be applicable across all cancer cell types." This has shown to help the survival rate of these mice and may one day help humans. 

This new research will in my opinion will only help broaden the tools for ending cancer. I also have a feeling this kind of re-engineering can be used not only for cancer cells but maybe for infectious diseases as well.

References:

1- https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180711141404.htm

2- http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/10/449/eaao3240

Australia’s Endangered Quolls Get Genetic Boost From Scientists

In northern Australia, quolls' (squirrel sized marsupials that eat any animal smaller than them) population is dying. Their diet of cane toads (a poisonous species) nearly led them to extinction. But in Queensland, scientists found that the quolls there did not feed on cane toads and had successful populations. This was because they had a gene that prevented them from eating toads. Scientists found that if you bred the Northern Australia's quoll with the Queensland's quoll, their offspring had the toad-aversion gene and used this to increase their population. Scientists believe that this method can help increase declining populations of any endangered species.

While some argue that it is "unnatural" to mess with nature this way, I think that it is a great way to keep everything balanced. Science was discovered to help living things thrive, so it only makes sense that we use this knowledge wisely.

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Scientists attempting to create "Virus-Proof" cells

In May 2018, a group of scientists called the Genome Project-write, announced a community wide project to develop cells resistant to viruses, radiation, freezing, aging and cancer. These cells have been termed, "ultra safe cells". The group believes that it can trick viruses into DNA illiteracy by "re coding" the DNA. Once the virus is unable to read the target's DNA it loses its capacity to manipulate human genes into viral reproduction.

Re coding the DNA refers to the process of recreating the human genome without redundancy. So essentially there would only be one codon coding for one amino acid, vs. multiple codons signaling for one amino acid. This logic seems to have been effective when executed with E.Coli. after making 321 changes to E. Coli's genome, the bacteria had become resistant to certain viruses.

The Genome Project-write has teamed up with Cellectis bio pharmaceuticals, who have provided the scientists with a genome editing tool called TALEN. It should come as no shock that pharmaceutical companies are helping finance this project because drug companies lose a tremendous deal of product to viral contamination in manufacturing. Researchers hope that these "ultra safe cells" can help preserve medicines and lower their cost.

This is ground breaking science that seems to be fairly attainable. The only fear researchers should mind is the evolutionary capacity of viruses. It would be a real shame to put an incredible amount of time and money into a project that viruses adapt to and learn in a few years.

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The first sequencing of "Streptococcus sobrinus"

A team of  Illinois Bioengineering researchers from the University of Illinois, led by, Assistant Professor Paul Jensen, sequenced the genome of three different strains of Streptococcus sobrinus. This bacteria is of the coccus (plural cocci) that have a spherically round shape. They can be found in different configurations. Alone as one coccus, diplococci as a pair. streptococci as a chain, staphylococci in a pyramid like structure, and so on. Streptococcus sobrinus is in a chain structure (as seen in figure 1), this bacteria is known for accelerated tooth decay in certain individuals. The S. mutans forms tartar on the teeth and uses the sugars we eat and creates it into acid, which becomes to strong for out teeth and then decalcifies it. 
S. sobrinus is a rare bacteria, as it is not present in all humans, and has been difficult for Jensen to work with. With working with the S. mutan strains they were able to get to the elusive S. sobrinus. Jensen states "Although it is rare, S. sobrinus produces acid more quicklu and is associated with the poorest clinical outcomes, especially among children, if S. sobrinus is present along with S. mutans, you're at risk for rampant tooth decay, which means there's some level of communication or synergy between the two that we don't understand yet."
This squencing has paved the road to a better understanding of the interactions between these two strains and how they create a devastating combo. What is known so far from Jensen is that " S. mutans bacteria sends out feelers in the form of a peptide to find out how many other S. mutans cells are nearby." the moment that there are enough they go on the offensive and begin to harm a persons mouth. This creates an imbalance of "good' bacteria to "bad" bacteria.

Reference:
1 -  https://bioengineering.illinois.edu/news/article/27184
2- https://mra.asm.org/content/7/3/e00804-18

Plant-eating algae or biofuel?

     Researchers from the Los Alamos National Laboratory have been exploring Auxenochlorella protothecoides, a freshwater strain of algae. This algae is able to use raw plants for a carbon energy source, like switchgrass. The carbon energy source helps aid in lipid productivity and cell growth. The head of the Bioenergy and Biome group states that the algae could be a notable source of renewable fuel because the algae is able to produce "refinery-compatible diesel and jet fuel precursors.
     This realization is important because algae growth can be influenced and increased by the consumption of waste plants. The use of algae as a key component in biofuel could be a sustainable and renewable and is an option that is worth further research and exploration.

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European Union's fear of gene-edited crops spells trouble for African Farmers

Even though many people were expecting the European Union to ease restrictions on gene edited crops, on July 25th 2018 it was decided gene-edited crops would experience the same regulation as GMO's. This came as a great shock to many European and African scientists. In the United States, the FDA has ruled that gene-edited crops do not present a threat. In fact they are identical to plants developed through traditional cross breeding techniques, just executed faster.

Nigel Taylor has been using CRISPR to create plant breeds resistant to disease in Kenya and Uganda. Many farmers were anticipating using this technology to grow more efficient crops and then export them to Europe. Unfortunately, African farmers are now forced to face the fact that they may have lost an entire continent of consumers they depended on. "The EU is Africa's single largest trading partner, receiving nearly $16 billion in agriculture and food imports in 2017..."

While gene editing techniques are faster, easier and safer than traditional GMO's, African farmers must revert to inefficient farming practices if they hope to sell their products to the E.U.

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Pet DNA testing looks a little hairy

Pet DNA testing has recently experienced a boom. The general public have jumped at the opportunity to have their dogs and cats DNA tested, and nearly 20 companies are glad to do it. While this new technology has been used to give "individualized healthcare" to pets there is one big problem, no regulation.

While many pet owners are simply interested in the entertainment value of knowing what breed their pet is, many people are making medical decisions based on test results. In humans, the mutations associated with disease are ceaselessly analyzed from multiple individuals, to determine the actual likelihood of disease. This has yet to happen with dogs. Most companies only compare the DNA to one individual's genome. Many pet owners are insisting on executing treatments, surgeries, and even euthanasia based on tests with very low accuracy.

This may sound troubling, but Veterinarians understand there is much work to be done. The International Veterinarian community must demand regulation on pet DNA testing businesses so that its potential may be unleashed. By researching more about canines' genome and its relationship to pathology we may better understand cancer and diabetes in humans.

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How plant breeding technologies could make fruits and vegetables more exciting to eat

What if vegetables never had dull colors and fuzzy skin or fruits that lack of flavor the produce aisle of the future could offer plant products that are designed for creative cooks and fussy eaters. In a review article published July 19 in the journal “Trends in Plant Science”, two food researchers describe how new breeding technologies have the potential to enhance the shape, size, color, and health benefits of produce, as well as to inform conventional breeding programs.

In their review, the authors describe how fast breeding with CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing doesn't rely on the addition of a new DNA sequence as is often the case with other genetically modified crops. Rather, these breeding technologies allow scientists to edit existing genes, particularly transcription factor genes called MYBs, which control many of a plant's key consumer traits. Information from these experiments can also be used to inform selection criteria in conventional breeding programs.

"MYBs often regulate the compounds that generate a fruit or vegetables, wow factor its color," Allan says. "These compounds are also associated with important health benefits such as lowering cardiovascular disease or acting as vitamins. By using MYBs to elevate these compounds to create a richer color, we can make produce both more appealing to consumers and more beneficial for the human diet." I think this is a wonderful effort. Anything we can do to lower the risk of disease and overall improve everyone’s health is a win.

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Fish Will Start Losing Sense of Smell as Carbon Dioxide Levels Rise, Study Finds

With human technologies thriving, more pollution is prevalent. As carbon dioxide is released, 30% of it is absorbed by the ocean and turns into carbonic acid. Studies have recorded that with an increase of carbon dioxide, fish will lose their sense of smell with the chemicals in the water. This makes it harder for them to detect food, predators; especially when they cannot see clearly. Fish are important because they are part of the natural ecosystem and food chain. Scientists placed sea bass in the carbon dioxide level that is predicted in 2100. The results showed that fish had to be 42% closer to a chemical to detect it and that they were behaving differently (they didn't swim as much and only moved five seconds at a time).

This is a critical problem that needs to be addressed promptly. With fish losing their sense of smell, their populations will decline and that will cause the aquatic ecosystem to collapse since fish have to feed on other fish. Not only will the aquatic environment be effected, but humans and other animals also feed on fish. The decline in fish will have a major effect on both the ecosystem and food chain.

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Moving forward with cystic fibrosis

Genes aren’t always destiny. In recent years, doctors and scientists have made remarkable progress against cystic fibrosis, a fatal recessive genetic disorder that has remained common through the centuries.  Just a couple of generations ago patients with cystic fibrosis had little hope reaching adulthood. Thanks to improvement in treatment and management, people with the disease are starting families and reaching middle age and beyond. The ongoing revolution in gene based therapies buy patients even more time and give them hope and purpose.

1 in 30 people in the U.S. is a carrier of the CFTR gene that causes cystic fibrosis. If both are carriers,  there’s a 1 in 4 chance that their child will be born with this disease. The severity of the disease can vary by the type of mutation that’s inherited as well as other genetic and environmental factors. I did not know that 1 in 30 people are carriers of the CFTR gene. I also think scientists have made great strides in helping people living with the disease improve there longevity and overall lifestyle.

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