Oldest RNA extracted from wooly mammoth

     This article talks about how RNA was extracted from a juvenile wooly mammoth found frozen in Siberian permafrost. It was dated by radiocarbon putting the woolly mammoth at 40,000 years old. This is the oldest RNA ever recovered. RNA is more fragile than DNA so finding these challenges assumptions on how long RNA can survive. Unlike DNA, RNA gives a glimpse of gene activity.

    In this woolly mammoth RNA, they identified messenger RNAS that code for proteins including many involved in muscle contraction and energy. They also found non-coding RNAS like microRNAS which regulate gene activity. Some of the microRNAS carried mutations that are unique to mammoths and elephants.

    Other information they gathered from this find was that the gene expression patterns suggested the wooly mammoth's muscles were under cellular stress in its final moments. The RNA and confirming DNA also determined that the mammoth was a male, he had a Y chromosome. 

    The implication to this finding was that this shows RNA can survive much longer than previously thought under the right preservation conditions. This helps open the door for studies on gene expression in extinct species not just their DNA. And research like this can help search for ancient RNA viruses like Ice Age influence persevered in long frozen remains.

Sources:

Basilio, H. (2025, November 14). Woolly Mammoth Unlocks Reveals the world’s oldest RNA. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/woolly-mammoth-unlocks-reveals-the-worlds-oldest-rna/

MSN. (n.d.). https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/scientists-extract-the-oldest-rna-ever-found-revealing-how-a-woolly-mammoth-s-genes-may-have-functioned-40000-years-ago/ar-AA1QFH8g?ocid=BingNewsSerp

Gene Therapy Restores Hearts After Myocardial Infarction in Pigs

According to the National Institute of Health, gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. This technique includes but is not limited to inserting a gene into another’s cells, inactivating a mutated gene or replacing a mutated gene. At King’s College London, researchers used microRNA-199a to invigorate cardiac repair in pigs. The treated animals demonstrated noticeable improvements such as increased muscle mass and reduced scarring. 

MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNA molecules involved in the regulation of gene expression. To do so, they bind to a target mRNA in order to prevent protein production. It is speculated that microRNAs regulate about 30% of human protein coding genes. MicroRNAs also aid in the regulation and reprogramming of stem cells.

PHOTOGRAPH BY SIMONE VAN DEN BERG, DREAMSTIME

However, many pigs did not benefit from the gene therapy. Persistence and uncontrolled amounts of the gene therapy led to a sudden arrhythmic death of the pigs. Although the numbers favor the undesired side of this breakthrough, researchers are hopeful for a better outcome next time with strict control regarding the dosages for this therapy.

In my opinion, this study opens the door for more research regarding the heart. It shows how effective microRNAs can be when used properly. As lead author, Mauro Giacca, said, “It is a very exciting moment for the field. After so many unsuccessful attempts at regenerating the heart using stem cells, which all have failed so far, for the first time we see real cardiac repair in a large animal.” This is mostly exciting because of how closely related a pig’s heart is to a human heart. Does that mean humans are next? 

Suffering from a broken heart? This new discovery could help.

In a very recent article written by Ana Sandoiu and published by Medical News Today, new research on regenerating heart tissue is discussed. This research was originally published in the journal Nature Communications. The study was conducted by Da-Zhi Wang from Boston M.A. and his colleagues. Continuing on from previous research conducted by Prof. Wang, the research team further expanded on the function of microRNAs in the generation of cardiomyocytes. The team identified two specific microRNA molecules which influenced the inflammatory response and cell death which follows a heart attack. These microRNA molecules are known as miR-19a and miR-19b. Experiments were conducted on mice who displayed promising results. The team intends to test the microRNAs on larger mammals and hopefully proceed to human studies. They hope this could be a revolutionary treatment and prevention of heart disease.

In America, heart disease is the leading cause of death. Heart disease can be caused by a variety of factors. A major element which causes this steep number of fatalities, is due to the hearts lack of ability to continue to proliferate new cardiomyocytes. This means that once the hearts cells are damaged they can not regenerate thus putting individuals at risk for heart failure. Our heart is the crucial for life and it deserves to be carefully cared for. However some events are out of our control. Discoveries such as these have the potential to save many people equip the heart to replace deceased cells.  

Preventing Honeybees from Becoming Queen

An article done by the New York Times reviews certain factors on how to stop honeybees from becoming queens. Researchers from PLOS Genetics found that certain molecules in the pollen of flowers and in honey will determine if females will be able to reproduce and live a longer life, or if they will become sterile and a worker bee. These conditions are directly linked to their diet, and not determined at birth like many would think. MicroRNA is contained within the small molecules of the plants which affect plant size and color. This microRNA, when transferred to a bee can affect genes and inhibit growth to the bee, making the bee sterile. In an experiment done by Nanjing University in China, researchers raised honeybees to better understand the microRNA effects to their growth. In larva raised on the microRNA contained diet, it was found that the bee population had smaller bodies and smaller ovaries than those raised on a diet not containing the microRNA. Researchers found that the TOR gene for growth is affected when the microRNA is ingested.

Scientists also studied the interdependence between the honeybees and the plants. Through honeybee pollination, certain flowers can become larger and more colorful thus attracting more bees creating a larger pollen spread. Researchers also suggest that further study of this interdependence can be applied to areas like therapeutic research for applications in cancer or obtain a better understanding on seasonal allergies and anaphylaxis.

This article in my opinion was very informative. The honeybee population is on a steady decline which should be a major concern for everyone. Without the honeybee population, many plants would not be pollinated. Therapeutic research through these interdependencies of plant and insect is also an interesting field to study.

(Link to a related study)

The breakdown of this brain region may accelerate aging

                In a new study, hypothalamus stem cells were observed, in young animals the cells divide to produce replacements for dead and damaged cells. As mice grow older, the number of the stem cells in the hypothalamus decrease until they’re all theoretically gone. Researchers decreased the number of cells in mice by 70%, and their lives were shortened by about 8%. The mice with the decreased number of cells seemed less coordinated and less social compared to the control mice.

                 Researchers assume that the decrease in the number of the stem cells causes organs to wear out gradually Stem cells were injected into the hypothalamic into middle-aged animals to reverse the deterioration, and the results were that the mice that received stem cells outlived mice that were injected with a different type of brain cell by ~10%. Relative to humans that could boost a few more years of healthy life.

                Stem cells manufacture microRNAs, and they’re the molecules which send messages to different cells. The stem cells from the hypothalamus produce enormous amounts of microRNAs in containers called exosomes. Mice injected with microRNA-rich exosomes isolated from cultures of young hypothalamus stem cells slowed the animals physical and cognitive breakdown. Protecting the hypothalamus’s stem cells and replicating the effects of microRNAs could slow aging in humans.

Article

Myelin formation, limb function restored in MS mouse models

In this study researchers have found that they can restore myelin formation and limb function in mice with MS with the microRNA miR-219.  Multiple sclerosis is a disease that attacks the central nervous system.  This disease destroys the myelin sheath and also oligodendrocytes.  Patients with MS lack miR-219.  Researchers deleted miR-219 in mouse models and found that several proteins that prevent myelin formation were present with the absence of the microRNA.  Then they administered a synthetic version of miR-219 to the MS mice and found that myelin-producing cells were reactivated.  This led to reformation of mylelin and improved limb function.

This could lead to a huge breakthrough in the treatment of MS for humans.  MS is a horrible illness and millions of people in the world are affected by it.  This disease could potentially be eliminated from the gene pool with more advances in medicine.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/316599.php
http://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30122-3

MicroRNA: The Cure to Schizophrenia Voices?

Schizophrenia often occurs during late adolescence or early adulthood and is characterized by cognitive problems such as delusions and hallucinations. About 1.1 % of Americans are affected by schizophrenia every year.  Despite schizophrenia being so common and having many treatments, there are still unanswered questions. One question in particular is the origin of auditory hallucinations. 

Researchers at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital have been using mouse models in order to replicate genetic predisposition for schizophrenia. The model that researchers were studying in particular is the 22q11 deletion syndrome, also known as DiGeorge syndrome. By modeling this syndrome, it allows the researchers to observe the development of psychiatric conditions, some of which that lead up to the development of schizophrenia.  

While running the mouse model, scientists have identified microRNAs that can be served as useful for creating new anti-psychotic drugs with reduced side effects. MircoRNAs are non-coding RNA molecules that generally involved in regulating and silencing gene expression. The specific microRNA that is of particular interest to researchers is miR-338-3p. This specific microRNA regulates the manufacture of protein D2 dopamine receptor (DRd2) in which have a major role in auditory hallucinations. According to Dr. Zakharenko, auditory hallucinations that are typical in schizophrenia is related to high levels of Drd2 in the auditory thalamus.

Through the mouse modeling, the researchers have discovered that individuals with 22q11 deletion syndrome are missing Dgcr8 genes in which is essential for the production of microRNAs. Because of the reduction of Dgcr8 genes based on this study, this leads to an increase in DrD2, thus causing auditory hallucinations demonstrated from schizophrenia. Further results have concluded that by replenishing microRNAs, the Drd2 levels decreased thus restoring normal functioning within the auditory thalamus, thus leading to a cure to auditory hallucinations. This is an important breakthrough for anti-psychotic drugs. By using a natural process and the concepts of microRNA, it can serve a new basis for how drugs for treating mental disorders are made. In particular, the benefits of microRNA is that it can lead to more effective interventions with limited side effects. With such an important discovery, this research can pave the way to tacking other mental disorders using the same concept. It will be very interesting to see how this research will progress and be beneficial in terms of psychiatric and medical research.

Fathers May Pass Down More Than Just Genes

In 2013, an obese man went to a hospital in Denmark to get his stomach stapled. It was a normal bariatric surgery, with one exception. The man donated a sperm sample a week before the procedure, then a week, after the procedure, then donated a third sample a year after the procedure. 

Scientists were determined to prove an interesting hypothesis: if a man's experiences can alter his sperm, and ultimately alter his offspring. This is a controversial idea, because the standard belief about heredity is that parents pass only genes down to their children. Genes that predispose children to factors like obesity, stress, or cancer, or they don't. Whether one's parents were actually obese or anxious does not rewrite the genes. 

But, in the past few years, a number of animal experiments have challenged this conventional understanding of heredity. For example, in 2010 Dr. Romaine Barres of the University of Copenhagen fed male rats a high-fat diet then mated them with females. Compared to male rats fed a regular diet, the high-fat rats fathered offspring who tended to gain more weight, develop more fat and have trouble regulating insulin levels.

Eating a high-fat diet was just one factor that could alter a father's offspring. High levels of stress have been thought to affect the offspring, too. Male rats exposed to stressful environments, such as smelling the odor of a fox, will father offspring with a dampened response to stress. 

Scientists have taken a close look at sperm to determine the link between a father's experiences and his offspring's biology. Genes are regulated by molecules called epigenetic factors. These molecules can respond to environmental influences and silence or activate certain genes as needed. Some studies have suggested that changes to epigenetic factors can be passed down to offspring. 

Dr. Tracy Bale, a neuroscientist at UPenn, examined the sperm of stressed rats and saw unusual levels of epigenetic molecules called microRNAs. Scientists have only started to investigate the epigenetics of fatherhood. The studies have been influential, but not clear-cut. 

Dr. Barres investigated the potential link between epigenetic differences of children with obese fathers vs. lean fathers. He collected sperm from ten obese Danish men and thirteen lean ones. They found numerous epigenetic differences, including the molecular caps that are placed on DNA in a process called methylation. He found more than 9,000 genes in which the methylation pattern differed between obese and lean men. 

After this finding, they recruited six obese men getting bariatric surgery to see if losing weight changes this pattern. Dr. Barres and his colleagues identified about 4,000 genes that were methylated differently a year after the surgery. These epigenetically altered genes are genes that control behavior such as appetite control. The new study does not prove that these changes have any affect on the father's children. Next, they will study the father's sperm and the pattern of the offspring's blood cells, to get a deeper understanding. To prove this finding, there must be more studies with many more people, such as hundreds, to prove this effect. 

I think this study is very interesting, it is something I never thought about before. I definitely have the standard belief about heredity, that genes are only passed on to offspring, not experiences. But after reading this article and thinking about the causes and effects, people always say that addiction "runs in the family." A person would not be addicted to something if they never tried alcohol, or a drug, so wouldn't we say that addiction is inherited by the parent's lifestyle? I don't have the best understanding of addiction or how it comes about, but if someone drinks on a daily basis and feels like they need alcohol, it is accepted by many people that the children can have an addictive personality too. So, why is it hard to believe that if a parent eats uncontrollably, and is ultimately addicted to food, will have the same effect on children just like alcoholism does? I agree that more studies need to be done to prove this, but I believe that a parent's (not just a father's) experiences and habits can be passed down to their offspring after reading this article.

Cancer Genes Can Turn off Brain Cancer

Scientists working in the Northwestern University School of Medicine have been able to identify a molecule of RNA that can suppress cancer causing genes. This RNA molecule is known as miR-182 and is able to suppress gliobastoma mulitforme in mice. Usually chemotherapy is only capable of damaging the DNA to stop cancer cells from being able to grow. In order to deliver the miR-182 to the tumor cells the scientists had to use nanostructure also know as spherical nucleic acids. From that injection in the blood-brain barrier it was able to increase the cancer cell death and reduced the cell growth. The study showed that the miR-182 suppressed a cancer gene that blocks cell death due to radiation. Using the spherical nucleic acids it was able to reach the tumor cells without using toxicity or affecting the immune system.

This idea could potentially help prevent or stop the growth of brain tumors. Scientists will need to do further research to decide on whether or not to use this method on humans. Since science have only used this on mice that were affected by glioblastoma mulitforme it may not be the same in humans with the same tumor. It could be very helpful to use the RNA molecule to suppress the cancer causing gene but could also be harmful if not properly tested. The advances in cancer research using RNA to try and stop cancer cells from growing could potentially be the next step in treating cancer.

Primary Article
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Genetic Link to Why Some Drinkers Can't Stop

Recent study shows that genetic play a major role in why some drinkers can’t stop. About 10 percent of people will develop alcohol disorders. Some ranges from mild to the severe type. Few individuals experience alcohol dependence that they can’t start or go through their days without alcohol.

A scientist at University of California found that moderate drinking activates a protein called brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF). BDNF works by protecting against drinking too much. A study published in the journal or Molecular Psychiatry, they experiment on mice to determine the threshold into excess drinking is crossed. It was concluded that when mice mimic human act of binge drinking their level of BDNF protein decreased significantly. In addition, scientists discovered a corresponding microRNA called miR-30a-5p that might play a role in BDNF.

When miR-30a-5p increased, BDNF decreased and the mice wanted to drink more alcohol than water. On the hand, when miR-30a-5p was inhibited, the brain returned to normal including the drinking behaviors of the mice. The study with mice provides clues that similar results may be happening un human brain during alcohol consumption. It is possible that some people are genetically susceptible in developing alcohol disorders. One day, researchers hope that new finding might provide data to increase success rate of alcoholism therapies. 

Article: http://time.com/3528029/drinking-problem-alcohol/

Creating Brain Cells From Human Skin Cells to Help Huntington's Patients

Stem cell development is a promising area of research, and holds a lot of secrets to cell development. However stem cells are highly controversial, which limits the possibilities for research in these areas. Stem cells allow for the potential of  being able to create needed cells for the body that cannot be produced on their own, such as brain cells. With diseases like ALS (Lou Gehrig's) and Huntington's, brain cells degenerate and the brain is unable to recreate those lost cells.

Brain with and without Huntington's

At Washington University in St. Louis, researchers have just discovered a new way to create brain cells needed for Huntington's patients. This method avoids using stem cells, which makes it less controversial, and also avoids creating multiple cell types that usually comes with stem cell research. These cells were created from human skin cells and converted directly into brain cells.The types of brain cells created are medium spiny neurons, and they are the cells that degenerate in a Huntington's patient. They are responsible for controlling movement, which causes uncontrollable, jerky movements in a patient who has degeneration of those neurons. These brain cells were then transplanted into mice, where they were found to have lived at least 6 months. These cells also behaved similarly to native brain cells of the mice.

Medium Spiny Neurons

The DNA in any cell of a person's body contains the instructions on how to be any type of cell seen in the body. The researchers found two microRNAs that are used in packaging the part of the DNA that codes for brain cells. These cells, when exposed to these 2 microRNAs, were able to be changed into neurons. These neurons could then be changed into specific neurons, such as medium spiny neurons, by being exposed to transcription factors specific to those neurons. Without the microRNAs, the transcription factors alone were not enough to create the neurons. This new method of creating brain cells is planned to be tested with Huntington's patients, and also being tested on mice with a model of Huntington's.

This research break-though is astounding. Patients diagnosed with Huntington's typically are diagnosed with a death sentence of 15-20 years. Usually patients either die by infection or commit suicide. This research gives those with degenerative brain diseases hope. With this research there is the potential to repair crucial cells that have been destroyed. It also allows for hope in families with the disease that even if it is passed down to their children that there may be a way to keep the disease from ever being debilitating.

Source: Human Skin Cells Reprogrammed Directly Into Brain Cells

Stress can affect RNA

A new study done by the University of Zurich, has found that traumatic experiences, early in life, may change the RNA of mice. It has been found that certain behavioral traits such as depression and anxiety can be present for many generations.  Another finding was that in the F1 generation, the sperm contained high levels of 5 different microRNAs, one of which is associated with  stress.  To test if this was related to social factors, the scientists injected the isolated RNA into eggs of mice that had not be affected.  The results were that this generation as well as their offspring were affected with depression.  The next step the scientists are looking at is if this is also true for humans.  This study can be found in Nature Neuroscience.

Genetic difference in blood clotting may underlie racial health disparity

Statistically, black people are less likely to survive heart attacks than white people.  This is generally due to social and cultural factors; however, genes may play a significant role as well.  Black people were found to have an increased ability for blood clotting.  A significantly higher amount of microRNA's were found in the blood of black subjects than in white subjects.

Race should be taken into account when making anti-thrombotic drugs, but will drug companies deem it worth researching drugs that are specific to a minority population?  As a result, the factors that contribute to the reduced chance of black people to survive heart attacks are essentially social.  Also, are microRNA's linked with sickle-cell anemia, another disease that is common in black people?  Until drugs and other treatments become more tailored to minority groups, it is best that one do research and  take preventative measures to hopefully reduce the likely-hood of developing whatever illness to which  one might be predisposed.

Link to article

New Targets For Ovarian Cancer Treatment Discovered

[caption id="attachment_6645" align="alignleft" width="304" caption="Two microRNAs upregulated"][/caption]

New targets for ovarian cancer treatment have been identified through the unraveling of how the ovarain cancer cells manipulate normal surrounding cells and turn them into tumor promoting cells. A team of researchers from the University of Chicago Medicine and Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine discovered that the cancer cells induce the normal cells and alter their production of three microRNAs. The three microRNAs affected are miR-31, miR-214, and miR-155. The cancer cells cause healthy fibroblasts to decrease the amount of miR-31 and miR-214 created and increase miR-155 production. These changes in microRNA levels cause an increase in expression of genes that are involved in the production of the chemical signals associated with cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). "These CAFs pump out chemical signals telling cancer cells to multiply, invade healthy tissues, and travel to distant sites in the abdomen."-Medical News Today. The most highly upregulated chemical signal was CCL5 which is a key tumor-pormoting factor. The researchers showed that antibodies nuetralized the CCL5 signal and this stopped augmented grouth of normal ovarian structures. By reversing the microRNA signals the researchers were able to cause CAFs to revert to normal fibroblasts. This technique also disrupts the cancer's support system and prevents the cancer from evolving resistance to drugs.

This discovery by the University of Chicago Medicine and Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine seems very promising and could possibly be a breakthough in cancer treatment. "Therapeutic approaches targeting microRNAs in cancer cells are under development," added Peter. "Our work suggests that it might be possible to modify microRNA expression in cancer-associated fibroblasts for therapeutic benefit." from Northwestern University. I think these newley discovered targets are the future of how ovarian cancer is treated and hopefully the survival rate of this cancer will be improved.

 

Scar Tissue Turned Into Heart Muscle Without Using Stem Cells

Scientists have recently found a way to turn scar tissue that forms on a heart after a heart attack into heart muscle, in a rat subject. This discovery eliminates the need for a stem cell transplant of the heart. The scientists found a way to use a molecule called microRNAs, molecules that serve as master regulators that control the activity of many genes, to activate the cardiac tissue conversion. This creates a simpler way for tissue regeneration. The microRNAs, in a specific combination, were delivered in fibroblasts. Fibroblasts are developed in the heart after a heart attack and impair the heart from pumping blood. The microRNA reprograms the fibroblasts to resemble the cardiomyocytes that make up the heart muscle. MicroRNA has many advantages over transplants of stem cells, such as the microRNA process eliminates the technical problems of surgery such as genetic alternations, and avoiding the ethical dilemma posed by stem cells. Even though this is a big step towards a better way to cure scar tissue in the heart, the procedure is still too risky to try in humans. This is just an early stage of trial, and it shows that the procedure is doable. This discovery has the potential to treat the twenty-three million people worldwide who suffer from heart failure and heart disease.