Do Your Pearly Whites Shine Into Your Ancestor's Past?

Hooked For a Bite

Prior to last week, only one gene was confirmed to influence the structure of teeth in the human body. Today, we now know 18 genes well enough to pin what they influence in teeth, whether it be size or shape. This was achieved through the collection of data from almost 900 volunteers from Columbia who had dental plaster casts made of their teeth, which then got turned into 3D scans. Dental crown measurements were taken from this and the data was analyzed. It was found during the course of the studies that there was one gene believed to be carried over from Neanderthals. The Neanderthal gene variant linked to teeth was only found in people of European descent, and results in thinner incisors. This was done through comparison of SNPs, which was done based on the tooth phenotype displayed, as well as GWAS associations. I think this is a cool look into anthropology, and helps make progress in our understanding of the human genome, but I quite honestly see not value in this work beyond that and possibly coming up with new genome comparison and analysis methods.

Links

https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2024-12-17/scientists-identify-genes-that-shape-peoples-teeth

https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01568-9?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982224015689%3Fshowall%3Dtrue

Deciphering Obesity's Genetic Component with Data

 

   Deciphering Obesity's Genetic Component with Data

        A group of geneticists at the University of Tokyo developed a data-driven way to decipher obesity genetics using obesity related SNPs from publicly available data. Using the data, they selected key genes and found 74 key genes related to obesity. Of the 74 genes selected, 37 of them had not been reported for the physiopathology of obesity. Finally, the group detected that 23 of the 74 genes are potential targets for 78 drugs that are already available and marketed.

Understanding the biological processes that lead to obesity is the most important step in stopping it. With an understanding of the genes that cause obesity via an in silico investigation, researchers can narrow the scope of what to work on when it comes to therapeutic targets. This kind of research is important as it informs what treatments are possible without having to rely on mass amounts of testing. Currently, Ozempic, a drug used for type 2 diabetes treatment, has seen use as a weight loss drug. The problem with this usage is that Ozempic is not approved as a weight loss treatment. With research like this group has done, further investigations into trends like the usage of Ozempic can be investigated further to find out if it can be used safely as a weight loss medication.

https://www.ozempic.com/why-ozempic/what-is-ozempic.html

https://www.nature.com/articles/s10038-023-01189-3

How genetics plays a role in the fish farming industry

A fishery pen based off the coast of Chile. Used from this article. 

    According to an article published in science magazine, to date, there is currently only one genetically modified species of fish that is mass produced in the industry: a transgenic salmon. However, scientists have looked into new modes of fish farming to include gene altering in order to make fish more marketable and easier to farm. This article talks about different methods scientists are in the process of studying when it comes to fish farming. Fish consumption is on the rise and is raising a big issue when it comes to commercial fishing and aquaculture. They need to be able to produce mass quantities of fish without destroying the ecosystem of the ocean and raise and breed fish that are still palatable towards the consumers. 

    This article specifically talks about the process of "genomic selection". In the past, fish farmers went through great lengths to be able to obtain the fish with the desired "traits" or genetics. This would raise issues during breeding different generations to try and identify which fish they wanted to selectively breed. Instead of struggling trying to select the fish with the desired traits, scientists are now able to use single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP's) to identify siblings of a generation with the genetic trait of interest. By doing this, they are able to obtain the fish that they want to continue to breed quickly and efficiently without having to kill the fish to determine its genetics. This technology has been used in other areas of farming and is just beginning in aquaculture. To improve the growth rate of fish, scientists have been looking into using gene transfer technology. However, when it comes to genetically modifying food, consumers a weary when it comes to genetically altered food and have not responded well to food that's been genetically altered in the past. Observation of genetic markers allows scientists to understand and observe a fishes ability to resist specific diseases and illnesses. Understanding resistance can help scientists prevent diseases and increase a farmed fishes survival rate. The article continues on with other various explantations of how specific genetic testing and well as SNP's are ultimately helping the fish farming and aquaculture industry. 

    This article is very important especially as the fish industry is growing at an exponential rate. I had the opportunity to take a fisheries class at Stockton so to be able to see how genetics is tackling some of the most prevalent problems in the fishery industry is truly amazing. The fishery industry as been in high demand as people are now consuming more fish than ever before. Many of the fish that are in high demand are not the easiest to raise in an aquaculture setting and some take a very long time to reach full maturity. All over the world there is an issue where in mass produced products like frozen fish fillets or even fish that is being served at a restaurant, it is not actually the fish that is placed on the label. Some of this is due to the price of the actual fish that is in demand and there is a cheaper "look-a-like" or the fish that is in demand is so overfished it is hard to obtain. By using SNP's to identify a fish or a fish sample, this will be able to help stop mislabeling in the fishery industry. This genetic technology explained in the article has the ability to change fisheries and aquaculture for the better and save the industry as well as multiple fish populations.

Articles used: Article #1 and Article #2

There is No Specific Gene for Homosexuality

A huge study was done to determine if there was a gene of sequence of genes that accounted for sexual behavior, specifically the preference of some individuals. The study was done to either prove of disprove that a single gene can alter someone's sexual preference so much that they completely change their preference. In the study, they polled nearly half a million people, becoming one of the largest studies of its time and toppling other past studies. Scientists took the DNA of people and studied the single nucleotide polymorphisms(SNPs) based on their sexual preference and what their history was. This meaning, if they have had all same-sex or all opposite-sex partners in their lifetime. The study found that there is no direct affect from genes to attraction. There may be indirect causes such as alter scent receptors, but nothing that directly correlates to sexual behavior. Out of all the SNPs studied, less than 1% had a direct association with same-sex attraction.


I agree with the article in the case that it's not just genes that determine attraction. There is obviously some sort of environmental factor that comes into play when determining attraction. This study is important because it shows that attraction is not one straight forward thing that can be simply altered by a gene. Rather it is a complex mechanism within the human body that is influenced by a number of internal and external sources. I think this article carries a lot of weight politically. This can help people to understand that attraction is not so easily explained or manipulated.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/no-evidence-that-gay-gene-exists
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/massive-study-finds-no-single-genetic-cause-of-same-sex-sexual-behavior/

Using Genomes to Predict Height

Despite new genetic paradigms, predicting height is still regarded as difficult. The height trait is a complex trait controlled by not only genes but by the environment which is a completely different topic. There are in fact many genes responsible for height in the genome sequence. Identifying these specific genetic variations causing height is a challenge. But Stephen Hsu from Michigan State University has developed an algorithm using newly available genomic sequencing data to predict height. Instead of using a genome wide assessment as others have done, Hsu and his team use a genomic prediction approach which decodes all SNPs at once rather than individually. It ultimately optimizes SNPs that are prone to affect the height trait the most.

The team used a UK Biobank that contained 500,000 genotype and phenotypic data to identify the smallest combination of SNPs responsible for height. Once they constructed an algorithm all that was needed was to test their algorithm. A regression line identified that there was a .65 correlation with actual height and predicted heights. The deviation or the error between true and estimated heights was due to only a difference of a few centimeters. This is still only the heritable portion of the height trait and the environmental aspect is still unaccounted for.

This method is only the beginning to better understanding polygenic traits. It allows scientists to focus on the genes that are most affecting the phenotype rather than giving the false impression that all genes share equal responsibility. Hopefully this knowledge can be useful in gene mutations and in gene therapy. It would be interesting to add on to this knowledge by testing other polygenic traits.

Links:
http://genestogenomes.org/from-sequence-to-centimeters-predicting-height-from-genomes/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211883712000597

Andean Adaptation to an Agricultural Lifestyle

Indigenous Andeans began to utilize agricultural practices thousands of years ago, before Europeans arrived and colonized. A particular crop that has become their staple diet is the potato. Its consumption can give us information on how humans adapt to new diets.

To examine whether or not genetic adaptation occurred over time, this study assessed and compared the genome single nucleotide polymorphism data of ancient and modern populations within the highland regions of Lake Titicaca and also lowland living Andeans. They discovered that the gene MGAM, which is involved in starch digestion, changed in the genome of ancient and modern highland Andeans but not in lowland populations who remained hunter-gatherers. This demonstrates that the evolution of potato crops initiated the evolution of the MGAM gene or coevolution.

Another gene that may have been affected is the DST gene, which is linked to the formation of the heart muscle in mice. Andeans living in the highland tend to have larger right ventricles, the right chamber of the heart. This may be attributed to the low amounts of oxygen in high altitude areas. Andeans would have had to compensate minimal amounts of oxygen with a change to their cardiovascular system. Also modern day Andeans have been discovered to have evolved immunes systems. The arrival of the Spanish led to an outbreak of disease. Such outbreaks led to genetic change in the CD83 gene, connected to smallpox and in the RPS29 gene, connected to influenza.

As a daughter of two indigenous Peruvians who hail from the Andes, this was an interesting read. I wonder if after a couple of generations whether or not the previously mentioned genes of modern Andeans who come to America remain the way the are or if there appears to be any deviation. I also wonder if genes vary among populations residing on different elevations since the variety of edible vegetation is also different.

Links:

https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/ehs-gr110718.php
http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/11/eaau4921
https://learn.canvas.net/courses/1516/pages/conquest-conquest-of-mexico-and-peru

When Being Small is Better

Salmon genetics have been changing over time according to Finland scientists from the University of Helsinki. By extracting DNA from salmon scale samples for over 40 years, scientists have found that male salmon have been maturing at earlier ages. Thus these salmon are significantly smaller in size compared to older aged salmon reaching sexual maturity. After a 144 genome-wide assessment of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), a single gene called the VgII3 gene was demonstrated to have reduced in allele frequency. VgII3 is the gene that controls the age of late maturing. This alteration of genotypic frequency may be an evolutionary advantage for smaller salmon compared to larger sized ones. Lead scientist, Czorlich, hypothesizes that larger salmon are more likely to be caught by anglers and less likely to reach their natal streams to mate and produce fecundity. In contrary, smaller salmon are able to escape human predation, spawn, and pass on their genes to the next generation.

As salmon fishing, commercial, and recreational continues to be a major source of profit for some areas, studying salmon populations becomes increasingly important. I think more investigation should be focused on whether or not other factors influence this gene change. Habitat destruction or the effect of climate change could be possible explanations. Identifying these factors and also the extent of change each has on salmon populations need to be thoroughly studied.

Links:
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/11/181114104356.htm
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/genomicresearch/snp
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/05/10/317255.full.pdf

New Genetic Markers Can Indicate Lifespan

New Genetic Markers Can Indicate Lifespan



Researchers from the Swiss Institute of Biochemistry, the Lausanne University Hospital, the University of Lausanne, and the EPFL have identified 16 genetic markers associated with a decreased lifespan. About 10% of the population has some configuration of these markers. Changes in locations in an individual’s DNA sequence, like single-nucleotide polymorphisms(SNPs), could affect lifespan. When indicating genes, the researchers prioritized changes in the DNA which are known to be linked to age-related disease. Three genes could act as biomarkers for an increase of lifespan are RBM6, SULT1A1 and CHRNA5 lower brain expression of three genes neighboring the SNP. This article is interesting because it indicates a way for scientist to calculate lifespans. This idea brings up the moral/ethical questions should scientist look into individual’s lifespan and if scientist can calculate lifespan should individuals be informed of their approximate lifespans?

Possible Genetic Link to Homosexuality

A study done at North shore university preformed SNP analysis of over two thousand men. The study focused on two separate genes, SLITRK5 and SLITRK6. SLITR6 is important in the development of the hypothalamus which helps to produce hormones like oxytocin.  The results of the study state differences in these two genes in between hetero and homosexual men, in addition there was variations in the TSHR gene on chromosome 14  which is a thyroid stimulating hormone receptor. A variation in the first intron of TSHR  correlates with a previous study that found abnormalities in thyroid function in homosexual men, the conclusion of this study infers that there is enough variation in these three genes

the better we as a society understand homosexuality the more it will be accepted, If we can change ignorant peoples minds to actually prove that they do not actually have a choice. Although, we live in a country where people refuse to believe in climate change even though its been proven since the 80's .
Link 1
link 2

Having Twins is in Your Genes

For a while, scientists have known that it was highly likely to give birth to twins being a twin themselves, but nobody really knew why.  After conducting studies and collecting data from over 2,000 woman who gave birth to fraternal twins, a number of researchers from multiple countries collectively found two different genes that increased the likelihood of having twins.  Scientists searched for what are called single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs.  The first one they found was linked to a hormone that regulates the release of eggs from the ovaries.  If levels are too high, multiple eggs could be released, resulting in the birth of fraternal twins or other multiple births.  The second gene found, which is still somewhat of a mystery, relates how the ovaries respond to the hormone that regulates egg release.  Not much is known about the gene, but researchers believe it could relate to why some mothers respond better to in vitro fertilization.  I find this type of research fascinating since I am a twin myself.  Knowing that there is another set of twins in my family always made me wonder if it really is true that having twins is linked to genetics, so finding this article was reassuring.

http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/04/having-fraternal-twins-your-genes-and-your-hormones

Is your Fitness Level a Result of your Genes?

Everywhere you go you've probably heard someone say "nothing works for me, no matter what I do I can't get in shape." With recent studies there has been a possible answer to these people's frustration! The fact that no matter what some people do they never seem more fit than when they started exercise can be explained by not the lack of effort, but from your DNA! The genetics of fitness study was published in The Journal of Applied Physiology.

The expectation is you exercise and get fit. However, not always the case!

This study is the first study type that looks at the effect of any type of exercise. The part of the DNA that was looked at are called single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). It was studied how a certain SNP affects how susceptible a person is to exercise. In this study more than 300,000 people participated in a 5 month long exercise period. They were required to bike stationary three times a week. The intensities that they were to bike at were determined by the scientists and everyone had the same intensity level. After the five month period certain people were much more fit compared to when they had started while others were not. To determine whether fitness had improved they compared the amount of oxygen their bodies needed. This is called a person's VO2 max. For those who were more fit after the five months there VO2 max increased, for others the number barely moved. There seemed to be no definite conclusions to why these people's VO2 max didn't increase, such as because of their age or body mass. However, there was a difference in the genomes. Out of all the participants who completed the exercise period scientists identified 21 specific SNPs that varied between those who got more fit and those who didn't. Since humans get two sets of alleles one from their mother's side and one from their father's there are actually 42 different variations of these SNPs.

What exactly do these SNPs mean? Those who had 19 or more SNPs improved there fitness by more than 3 times compared to those who only had 9 or less SNPs. One of the SNPs located on the ACSL1 gene was shown to have a high effect on exercise. It resulted in as much as 6 percent in the difference between those whose fitness improved and those whose fitness didn't. This makes sense because this gene is known for playing a role in how the body metabolizes fat. Although there still has to be many more studies done on this concept it is interesting to discover that genes may effect physical ability. Within the future more studies will be done with different ethnicity's to determine SNPs that are shared and what other genes may be affected.

Gene to Increase Chances of Twins

After a study of 2000 mothers of fraternal twins, researchers have discovered that a woman's chance of having twins would increase if they have at least one of two genes through looking at their gene sequences. One gene affects the amount of hormone levels the mother has and the other is how the ovaries respond to them. Having just one copy of the SNPS would increase the chance of having fraternal twins by 29%. These SNPS are called FHB and SMAD3. FHB is the one that affects hormone levels and SMAD3 affects the ovaries response to FHB.

With this new information researches now have a better understanding of exactly what causes twins. This gives support that if the there are fraternal twins on the mother's side of the family, then there is a higher chance of her giving birth to a set of twins as well. Simply having the gene for twins does not necessarily mean the mother will give birth to twins, it only increases the likelihood. These genes in fact do not have to be present at all. So, there could be an "eve" gene for having twins, but it may have not been needed for the first set of fraternal twins to exist.

Closer Links to the Genetics of Fraternal Twins

The chance of having fraternal twins has long been known to increase if relatives have also had the  event occur, however researchers have recently been underway to find a closer link to the explanation. The United States alone saw a 76% increase in the fraternal twin population from 1980 to 2011, and scientists want an answer.

This article explains the path scientists have taken to identify the increasing factor. They've collected and compared single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of 2000 mothers of fraternal twins to SNPs of mothers who had not had twins. Researchers narrowed the results down to find two SNPs that increase a woman's likelihood of having fraternal twins by about 30%!

One of the SNPs is known to cause an increase in the hormone involved in the production of follicles, which are the sites within the ovaries that house and mature the eggs before they are released from the ovary. If the levels of this hormone is too high, the mother has an increased chance of releasing multiple eggs.

The second SNP is a bit more complicated. This one in particular is a gene that alters the way molecules signal to each other. This gene in turn, called SMAD3, has an affect on the way that the ovaries respond to the hormone coded by the other SNP. This same gene has also been linked to osteoarthritis. Scientists are planning to conduct further research on how mothers react differently due to the SMAD3 gene. These results presented were only the first step.

It's really awesome that this group of scientists have made such progress on identifying the genetic components behind having fraternal twins. This is the closest that scientists have yet to come in relation to this subject matter. This is not exactly the most critical research to be done, as there usually aren't complications or anything wrong with birthing fraternal twins. However its still always great to hear about the evolution of genetic findings in all aspects of life.

Do Genes Play a Role in our Aerobic Fitness?

Have you ever been in a situation where you’re trying to get fit but even after months, you see no apparent change, whereas others experience noticeable differences in a shorter time span? According to a new study, genes may be the ones to blame for this. Researchers from the Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Baton Rouge, La., and other institutions examined a group of 473 healthy white individuals over five months responding to an aerobic workout routine. The optimal goal of this experiment was examine the entire genome of people with various traits and determine whether tiny segments of DNA, called single-nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs recur frequently in those traits. The presence of any of these SNP’s would suggest that a particular snippet affects the susceptibility to exercise. Over the five-month length of this program, individuals pedaled stationary bicycles 3 times a week at the same controlled rate. As expected, some individuals became fitter than others, which was determined by an increase of oxygen in their bodies while performing exercise, a measure called maximal oxygen capacity or VO₂. There were no obvious factors that played a role in this such as age differences or body mass. Instead, there was a deviation in their genomes. Out of the 300,000 or so SNPs examined, 21 differed consistently between the two groups. Persons who had more than 19 of these specific SNPs improved their cardiorespiratory fitness as opposed to those who had 9 or fewer. One particular SNP located on the gene ACSL₁ was found to account for as much as 6 percent of the difference in response among the participants. This particular gene is also known to play a role in how the body metabolizes fat so its relation with exercise could make sense.

Though this research doesn’t entirely confirm genes play a role in our body’s general fitness, it provides a start for further research to expand on this theory. I found this article very interesting because I personally have experienced friends take significantly longer to achieve their fitness goals whereas others get there in shorter period and with the possibility of genes playing a role, it could certainly explain why.

Cause of Host Specificity in Salmonella Determined by Penn Researchers

Many species of bacteria have multiple serovars, one species is Salmonella. Salmonella is commonly known for causing food poisoning, but only certain serovars contribute to human illness. Other strains which do not affect humans could possibly affect cows, poultry, or other numerous hosts. University of Pennsylvania scientists studied these different strains of Salmonella to determine the cause of their host specific adhesion. To determine the differences in the strains of bacteria, the researchers compared the bacteria's genomes. The analysis allowed the researchers to identify SNPs of the bacteria, most importantly polymorphisms in proteins on the surface of the bacteria. Surface proteins allow the bacteria-host interaction and were believed to be crucial in host specificity. After studying 580 different strains of the bacteria, the researchers determined that variation of the surface proteins supported their belief of host specificity caused by surface proteins. The scientists then examined the protein FilmH further, due to it having the most variation. To verify that the change in the FilmH protein was the cause of the different affinities of the Salmonella, the scientists modified E. coli bacteria to carry two forms of the FilmH protein:affinity to humans and affinity to bovines. The E. coli cells acted as predicted; the cells with the FilmH strain associated with human affinity were only attracted to human cells, while E. coli with FilmH protein associated with bovine affinity were only attracted to bovine cells.

By determining the protein which causes affinity in Salmonella, scientists can help prevent illness caused by this bacteria. The affinity of Salmonella strains was determined to be caused by the change of one amino acid. By altering this amino acid, vaccines can be made to prevent food poisoning from Salmonella.This can also help farmers protect their livestock if they are infected by Salmonella. I also feel that creating a vaccine based on altering FilmH can be dangerous. If the vaccine in humans alters the FilmH to a serovar with bovine affinity, could it lead to greater risk of livestock infection. I am sure there are other precautions which could be taken to avoid this risk, but an outbreak of Salmonella in livestock could be detrimental to human society.

Motion Sickness and Genetics

When people think about motion sickness, many do not understand the role that genetics plays with it. In simple terms, motion sickness is a condition that occurs in individuals that experience nausea, vertigo or migraines when traveling in a moving vehicle. It is fairly common--affecting approximately one in three people--and has been shown to have high heritability.

Recently, a genetics company, 23andMe conducted a study involving 80,000 of their customers to understand the genetics of motion sickness. The study found that there are 35 genetic factors associated with motion sickness at the genome-wide significant level. These genetic factors are referred to as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

What was interesting was that most of these SNPs were found in or near genes that are involved eye, ear, balance, and cranial development. Others were found near genes that have a role in the nervous system, glucose homeostasis, or hypoxia. Additionally, the study revealed that SNPs exhibit sex-specific effects--women endured stronger effects (three times more) than men did.The study was also able to conclude that these genes were also linked to other conditions such as migraines, morning sickness, and postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV).

Since the study indicated that the nervous system plays an important role with motion sickness, it can possibly help researchers understand the genetics of motion sickness better. Possible risk factors and future treatments can be outlined given the results of the study. This would be a wonderful advancement in order to help target the issue underlying motion sickness. Being one that suffers from some mild cases of motion sickness, future research would be very beneficial.

Original article: click here.

Related Article: click here.

Deeper Digging Needed to Decode a Best Friend’s Genetic Roots

This article explains new research and explanations to the origin of dogs. Cosmologists settled on the idea that about 13.7 billion years ago the universe was created with a big bang. With dogs, the idea is that dogs originated from wolves. It appears that dogs first evolved between 15,000-100,000 years ago in Asia, Africa or multiple locations. Greger Larson at the University of Durham in England, explains the confusion of the origin of dogs through his on going research. Larson argues that the DNA of modern dogs is so mixed up, its difficult to even monitor the origin of dogs a hundred years old. The only way to understand the origin is through the sequencing of ancient dog fossils.

After analyzing 49,024 locations of dog DNA single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), Larson and his colleagues took the DNA from 1,375 dogs of 121 breeds, and 19 wolves. They discovered that six breeds were less genetically mixed. These six breed include the basenji, shar-pei, Saluki, Akita, Finnish spitz and Eurasier. They also found that dogs more genetically mixed were not from places where the ancient fossils have been found.

basenji

Saluki

 Eurasier

In the Origin Of Domestic Dogs, the University of Turku in Finland analyzed mitochondrail DNA from 18 fossils and compared ancient sequences to those from 49 modern wolves and 77 modern dogs. This new data pinpointed Europe as the major nexus of dog domestication. It identified four clades of modern dogs that are most closely related to ancient European dogs rather than wolves from China or the middle east. The largest clade of domestic dogs last shared a common ancestor 18,800 years ago and shared a common ancestor with wolves around 32,100 years ago. They must have domesticated somewhere in between this window.

In one year from the article of "Deeper Digging Needed to Decode a Best Friend's Genetic Roots" and the "Origin of Domestic Dogs," they have been able to narrow the origin of the domestication of dogs. The ancient dog fossils were key to understanding the origins of dogs.

Article: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/22/science/dogs-genetic-roots-remain-obscure.html?_r=1&

A research team at Washington University in St. Louis, MO lead by Dr. C. Robert Cloninger investigated the genetic influence on schizophrenic disorders.  Approximately 1% of the general population have schizophrenia, but it occurs in around 10% of individuals who have a first-degree relative with this disorder.

Previous research like a study done at Cardiff University of Medicine focused on identifying new genes linked to Schizophrenia. However, in this study, Dr. Cloninger and his team choose to take a more collaborative approach by considering the interaction of several genes.  "[Genes] function in concert much like an orchestra, and to understand how they're working, you have to know not just who the members of the orchestra and how they interact."

In this study the genomes of 4,2000 people with schizophrenia and 3,800 without the disorder were analyzed. The team examined nearly 700,000 areas of the genome searching for  single nucleotidepolymorpism (SNP). SNP occurs when there is a variation within a single unit of DNA.

                                         WHATS THE IMPORTANCE? 

The study found that genes that are linked to schizophrenia individually have inconsistent associations with the disorder, however; when working together as clusters, they created a risk of 70-100% for the development of the disorder.

In identifying the genetic variations and symptoms they produce, it may be possible to select more efficient treatments for specific pathways that are responsible for the disorder. Dr. Cloninger and his research team's approach appears to be an efficient and innovative way to examine the source of this disease. Considering a larger scale, the application of this research can expand and be groundbreaking in regards to understanding other common complex health issues such as heart disease, diabetes and hypertension. 

Article: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/282539.php 

Largest International Study in Genetics of Cancer Yields Promising Results

[caption id="attachment_7433" align="alignright" width="356" caption="Genetic Markers For Cancer Risk "][/caption]

This past March 27 marks a momentous date in the fight against cancer. Scienceblog.com reports that the Collaborative Oncological Gene-environment Study (COGS) is the name for a large international effort involving more than 100 institutions and genetic tests on 200,000 men and women worldwide who participated in the study. Genetic investigators came from North America, Europe, Australia and Asia to take part in this landmark undertaking.

The findings have uncovered dozens of signposts in DNA that can help reveal a person's risk for breast, ovarian or prostate cancer. Scientists used scans of DNA from volunteers to seek out the markers in the DNA code that are associated with disease risk.

Breast cancer, the most common form of cancer among women, results in over 1 million new cases every year. Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in men after lung cancer, with about 900,000 new cases every year. Ovarian cancer accounts for approximately 4 percent of all cancers diagnosed in women, with 225,000 cases worldwide according to a related report by Huffingtonpost.com.

What scientists were looking for were genetic variations known as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that indicate an increased risk for cancer. What they found were 49 new SNPs associated with risk of breast cancer including several others that modify breast cancer risk from rare mutated genes, between 23 to 26 for prostate cancer and 8 to 11 markers for ovarian cancer, depending upon the source. One of the most intriguing findings is that different SNPs predict the risk of different types of breast or ovarian cancer.

One of the scientists who contributed to the finding of new risk regions for breast and prostate cancer is Distinguished Professor Brian Henderson of the Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine of USC. He said,

“This is far and away the largest genetic study of cancer ever to be reported…This study demonstrates the power of international team science that will ultimately provide major health benefits on a global scale.”

It impresses me to no end to discover what we can accomplish when we tackle such issues collectively. I do believe it is necessary to no longer look at health issues solely within our own national borders; especially issues like cancer which effect both men and women worldwide. It is encouraging to see that at least within the scientific community there is genuine cooperation which is often a problem when it comes to religions and politics.