Are There Developmental Origins of Autism?

  A relatively recent study conducted by the National Institute of Health on ASD(autism spectrum disorder),  have led researchers to have found several factors that likely contribute to the disorder. However even with certain genetic variations being associated with ASD, researchers still have been unable to identify how these variations shape the development and function of the brain. ASD is a neurological and developmental disorder that encompasses a wide range of symptoms, including but not limited to how people interact with others, communicate, learn, and behave. Symptoms will generally appear within the first two years of life, but can be diagnosed at any age. 

    For this study, researchers investigated the human exome which includes all the exons in the human genome and DNA components that provide instructions for making proteins. While exons only make up roughly 1 to 1.5% of a person's genetic code, they are typically responsible for disease causing mutations. Therefore sequencing an individual's exome can allow researchers to identify certain genetic mutations that are responsible for a disorder/condition. In the context of this experiment, researchers sequenced those with and without ASD to compare their exomes. Data from 35, 584 people was collected, with 11,986 of those people having ASD. The results showed that there was very strong evidence that 26 genes are linked to ASD and another 76 were identified to have correlation to the disorder. Of the 102 genes, 60 had not been linked to ASD before. These findings suggest that there are many more genetic variants associated with ASD than previously thought.

How Missing Genes Explains the Vampire Bat’s Diet

Vampire bat’s diet consist solely, as their name implies, of blood. Blood, despite high in protein, is low in sugar, fat, and nutrients. This articles explains how a group of researchers performed a genome sequence analysis on the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus, and compare it with 25 other bat species to see if anything in the DNA can explain how vampire bats can sustain themselves on their unique diet. It’s was found that the common vampire bat was missing 13 genes found in the other bat genomes. Losing a gene means that a species does not have a functional copy of that gene anymore. This can happen in two different ways: either by having the gene completely removed from the genome or by having remnants of the gene with the reading frame being destroyed so much through frame shifts, early stop codons, and other mutations that the gene is not going to be coded for a functional protein.

3 out of the 13 missing genes were previously identified as having been lost by the vampire bat from another study that are associated with losses of taste receptors for sweet and bitter flavors. According to Huabin Zhao, author of that previous study, gene losses often follow dietary specializations when the gene is not needed in the daily life of the animal. The other 10 genes have not been previously reported including two that are involved in boosting insulin secretion. This is perhaps because insulin is not needed as much giving their low sugar diet. Another gene lost is one involved in inhibiting trypsin, an enzyme that helps in protein digestion and absorption. High levels of this enzyme would help vampire bats digest their protein rich diet. On the opposite end, they lost a gene, REP15, that is associated with boosting iron excretion preventing them from becoming poisoned by the metal, which is abundant in blood. 

Not all lost genes are related the bat’s diet but also it’s social behavior. Vampire bats are smart and social animals. They are known to share blood meals to roost mates facing starvation especially to those that shared their meal with them before. This behavior could be attributed to their lack of a gene that degrades 24S-hydroxycholesterol, a cholesterol metabolite known to play various roles in brain development, which means the bats have higher levels of metabolite in their brains. A study shows how this improve spatial memory in mice and could help explain their impressive social memory skills.

A Sole-Surviving Ancient Reptile: The Tuatara

 

In this ScienceNews article written by Jake Buehler, we learn about a very fascinating organism. The tuatara is a lizard-like species that is native to New Zealand, and the last of a mighty order of reptiles that flourished back when dinosaurs walked the earth. They have many abilities that have fascinated scientists for decades, including a long lifespan, imperviousness to many kinds of infections, and most surprisingly for a reptile, thriving in cooler weather. Now, with a vulnerable status on the IUCN red list and its sacred status to the Indigenous Maori people, scientists prioritize the compiling of the tuatara’s genome.

The researchers found that the tuatara’s genome is 5 gigabases which is two-thirds larger than a human’s and unusually large for a reptile. What I find the most interesting is that the tuatara split off from their reptilian relatives about 250 million years ago, so they really have a unique place when being compared to other reptiles today. The team also found that tuatara has more genes that produce selenoproteins than humans do, and an unusually high number of TRP genes which may explain the tuatara’s long lifespan and tolerance for the cold. This new knowledge excites both human biologists, who can use knowledge of the selenoproteins, and reptile biologists alike, but with such a large genome there is much to learn to truly unravel the mystery of the tuatara.

Other Links

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02063-4

https://theconversation.com/not-a-lizard-nor-a-dinosaur-tuatara-is-the-sole-survivor-of-a-once-widespread-reptile-group-75921

The Genetics of California's Oldest Trees

An article in the San Francisco Chronicle discusses the large multi year project that was conducted to sequence the genomes of the coast redwood and giant sequoia trees, which are some of California's oldest living trees. They are doing this to see which trees are better suited to adapt to a newer, warmer climate, and to see how the trees have adapted over the past years. While sequencing they found that the Coast Redwood is the second largest genome ever sequenced, with about 27 billion base pairs with 9 times the size of the human genome. Now that they have sequenced the genome they plan to observe which genetic traits perform better than others so that they can compile a sort of map for the future conservation of the different species in those areas. Researchers also find this work to be important as about 95% of California's old growth has been wiped out, so there is not much that genetically remains of the different types of species in these areas.   

I think that this article is rather interesting because trees are some of the oldest living organisms on the planet so I think it would be very beneficial to learn all that we can from their genetics while we still can. I also think it was fascinating to learn that almost 95% of the California’s old plant life is nearly gone, which sort of makes it even more imperative that we start to make more progress towards learning about, and conserving them to the best of our current abilities.  

Cell editors correct genetic errors

In an article published by Science Daily, scientists studying RNA editing have decided to turn to the professionals for help. Editing proteins known as PPR are masters in the art of RNA modification. In plants much of the genetic material contains small errors affecting the DNA in the mitochondria of the cells. But rather than changing the DNA (the actual building blueprints.) these editors act as proofreaders. Going over the RNA and proofreading for any mistakes. Since each editor can usually only recognize one specific error, most plants can have upwards of 500 different proof readers. Researchers curious to see how these whether these editors work alone, or if they need help decided to insert the PPR into E. coli. The assumption of most researchers was that the PPR locate errors and then call upon an RNA correction fluid, an enzyme called cytidine deaminase for help. However, what they discovered was that some PPR proteins have a certain sequence of amino acids at their end which are known to theoretically act as cytidine deaminase. It’s as if they carry their own vial of correction fluid, ready to correct any errors on the spot. 

The question is, why did this develop over the course of evolution. One theory suggests that the RNA editing may allow plants to collect mutations. With so many different combinations of changes that individually could be harmful or even fatal, but together could provide a survival advantage for the plant. Discoveries like these pave the way for amazing possibilities in the now not so distant future. One-day RNA editing will be used to cure diseases that today’s medicine simply cannot cure and treatments cannot help. The future of medical science may very well depend on genetics.

Rabbits Evolved Resistance to Myxoma Virus

In the 1950's scientists released the myxoma virus to rabbits in order to reduce the rapidly growing population size. This worked until rabbits became genetically resistant to the virus over time, and sparked interest amongst researchers at Arizona State University who partnered together with University of Cambridge. In Science Direct's article entitled, "Hop to it: Researchers evaluate rabbits' evolved resistance to myxoma virus", it discusses the findings found at the Grant Mcfaddens Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy that validate the gene held responsible for the resistance and possible replication for potential use of treating cancer.

As said by a scientist at the center, "The idea was to sequence examples of many rabbit genomes of all three places (Australia, France, and the UK)…..and came up with a half dozen gene variations in common--our job was to determine whether these variants of genes affected that virus in a lab setting." It was then discovered that the trend seen in the three geographically distinct locations served as an example of co-evolution operating between viruses and their host.

Researchers in the UK used modern sequencing technology to sequence rabbit genomes to past populations and the population now for comparison. At this time McFadden and the center determined whether the genes found correlated with antiviral effects by testing the virus in cell culture. By doing this as a group the scientists validated the role of genes in viral replication, and still serves as a great example of co-evolution.

-picture credit to google images

The Mighty Cockroaches

           Cockroaches eat just about anything in your home from feces to glue, and can live for a week without its own head. The American cockroach is the largest common house cockroach. Cockroaches can run extremely fast and fly short distances. These insects were genetically sequenced by Chinese scientists. The sequence is larger than the human genome. “Little mighty” is a nickname created for cockroaches by the Chinese, meaning that it is tiny but has strength and liveliness. Because of the cockroach’s need for a large range of proteins, they have a lot of genes. The cockroach has over 1,000 genes just to help detect chemical cues from the environment. Cockroaches also have over 300 genes just to perceive bitter tastes which leads to them knowing what foods are safe or poisonous. Cockroaches go through something called eusociality, which is when organisms cooperate through sophisticated division of labor. Eusociality proves the simple intelligence of these termites. This study of the genome of cockroach leads to the hopeful uncovering of medical treatments being tested on cockroaches or extracted, which has been done for a long time in traditional Chinese medicine.

 

Article: In a Cockroach Genome, ‘Little Mighty’ Secrets

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/science/american-cockroach-genome.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fscience&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=search&contentPlacement=3&pgtype=sectionfront

related article: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-03281-1

A wild-born, pure Australian desert dingo has taken out first place in the World's Most Interesting Genome competition.

A wild-born, pure Australian desert dingo called Sandy Maliki has taken out first place in the World's Most Interesting Genome competition.  As a rare, wild-born pure dingo, Sandy provides a unique case study. Pure dingoes are an intermediate between wild wolves and domestic dogs, with a range of non-domesticated traits. Sequencing Sandy's genome will help pinpoint some of the genes for temperament and behavior that undergo the transition from wild animals to perfect pets. The dingo sequencing project will be the first to test Charles' Darwin's 1868 theory that the process of domestication can be divided into two steps: unconscious selection as a result of non-intentional human influences; and artificial selection as a result of breeding by humans for desired traits. The main point of the annual international PacBio competition is to raise public awareness of science and how genomic research can benefit society. 
Original article here
More information on Sandy

DNA and Biopiracy

Biopiracy involves commercializing and profiting from local knowledge and biological resources, without crediting or compensating those who provided that knowledge or resource. Genetic information can be obtained by many people around the world, as it exists in the natural world around us. Over time, this information has been made available digitally. This has been possible because of countless collective efforts from scientists and indigenous people alike. For example, a company of researchers may be studying certain plant life in a specific area and the people indigenous to that are can provide their knowledge of that plant life. A lot of genetic information is stored in public databases where everyone can have access to them. This gives opportunity for biopiracy to occur and can cause many issues. This article gives insight on this from different perspectives and also discusses different policies that are in place. 

https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-05/nios-ss052115.php

Because it is such a widespread issue I think it will be very hard to control, although in an ideal world I would want everyone to get credit and compensation for their work, not just big companies. Some solutions that are being suggested are having big companies track the origins of the gene or data that they are profiting from and coming up with agreements for compensation and who can use this data to avoid infringing on anyones rights and making the situation more fair. 

http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/11/rise-digital-dna-raises-biopiracy-fears

Japanese Researchers Successfully Decoded Morning Glories Entire Genome

The Morning Glory is a popular flower in Japan and is used as a traditional garden plant that blooms in the summer. The plants have something in their DNA known as "jumping genes" called transposons, which are mutants that frequently appear in the flowers. These mutations have been making the morning glories flowers and leaves have strangle shapes since the Edo period (200 years ago). These strangle shapes make the flowers more appreciated by the Japanese and have developed into a unique Japanese gardening culture. The popularity of the mutant morning glories, a lot of natural mutants have been collected. By analyzing the flowers mutants closely, the research team found the genes that cause the leaf shapes and flower color and patterns. 

Researchers in Japan have studied the Japanese Morning Glory and successfully decoded the flower's entire genome, obtaining a high-quality nearly complete genome sequence. This lead to the identification of the coding sequences in morning glory's 43,000 genes. Researchers also discovered the the number and distribution of transposons. The research group used the flowers entire genome to identify the mutants including dwarfism categorized by dark green, thick wrinkled leaves as well as the gene for plant biosynthesis that is disrupted by the transposons in the mutants.

One of the researchers said that after the morning glory's genome was decoded, the value of using the flower as a model organism has sky rocketed and could possibly used by researchers all around the world. The leader of the research said The genome sequence of the Japanese morning glory helped us to better understand the flower itself, as well as used to better understand related crops such as sweet potatoes. 

I think it's astonishing that flowers have have genes that make them different just like humans and animals do. This was the first time I've heard of transposons. It sparks an interest in me to learn more about how genes are transmitted. I hope to eventually see more studies similar to this one in the future. These studies can lead to way to more genetic discoveries. 

Mediterranean Mystery: First DNA of Ancient Shipwreck Victim

On August 31st, off the tiny Greek island of Antikythera, sponge divers found human remains from a 2,000 year old merchant shipwreck. This is the first ever shipwreck to be examined by archeologists. The first question that came to mind for the scientists was whether or not they were able to collect DNA from the recovered bones.  After closely examining the remains which consisted of pieces of  skull, teeth, femur, several arm bones, rib bones and petrous bone (dense bone behind the ear), scientists agreed that the bones were very well persevered. This is shocking yet amazing news since it has been over 2,000 years since they've been in the oceans waters! Before testing the remains for DNA, bone expert, Hannes Schroeder suspects the remains belong to a young male, in his early twenties based on the formation of the skull and teeth.

If Schroeder is able to recover the bones DNA and sequence it, this would mean breaking through to new grounds that have never been reached before. The only other ancient DNA identification scientists were able to recover was last year on a sample from a cold climate (northern Europe), which resulted in the discovery of the first Mediterranean ancient genome of a Neolithic (New Stone Age) individual from Spain.

One question that many researchers have been asking themselves is: Why have so many bones been found at this site compared to many other shipwrecks were hardly none are recovered?
Well, researchers have concluded that this shipwreck must have possessed two components that a majority of other shipwrecks did not.
     1. The wreck must have happened fairly quickly, much faster than the time it takes for the passengers to react to it.
     2. Many people must have been below deck at the time of the sinking.
For the time of the wreck, the vessel was extremely large, measuring up to forty meters long. The ship also had multiple decks with many passengers. Since the wreck happened close to shore, researchers think the boat crashed against the rocks and broke up the boat and started sinking, before the passengers on the lower deck realized and had time to evacuate.

More news will be released on this exciting discovery, as soon as the results from the DNA testing are confirmed. Then the next step will be to sequence the genes which will take several months. For now, that is all that has been reported.
The below link is a document on how scientists recover DNA from ancient remains!
http://www.nature.com/nprot/journal/v2/n7/full/nprot.2007.247.html

Gene to Increase Chances of Twins

After a study of 2000 mothers of fraternal twins, researchers have discovered that a woman's chance of having twins would increase if they have at least one of two genes through looking at their gene sequences. One gene affects the amount of hormone levels the mother has and the other is how the ovaries respond to them. Having just one copy of the SNPS would increase the chance of having fraternal twins by 29%. These SNPS are called FHB and SMAD3. FHB is the one that affects hormone levels and SMAD3 affects the ovaries response to FHB.

With this new information researches now have a better understanding of exactly what causes twins. This gives support that if the there are fraternal twins on the mother's side of the family, then there is a higher chance of her giving birth to a set of twins as well. Simply having the gene for twins does not necessarily mean the mother will give birth to twins, it only increases the likelihood. These genes in fact do not have to be present at all. So, there could be an "eve" gene for having twins, but it may have not been needed for the first set of fraternal twins to exist.

Vampire Bat's saliva is specially evolved for blood feeding

This article talks about how vampire bats over many years have adapted from being insect and fruit eating bats to how they have acquired the trait of consuming blood. Scientists have been studying the saliva of vampire bats and comparing it to other species that suck blood from mammals. They found that sanguivorous leeches also have that gene that allows them to feed off of mammalian blood. The gene that the scientists have found is secreted along with the saliva. Scientists have also found that this gene is not present in other insect eating or fruit eating bats. Three discoveries were made regarding this gene for blood feeding: gene recruitment, alternative splicing and genome reorganization. Scientists hope that later on, they will find more species that feed on blood so that they can elaborate on the three processes that involve blood feeding.

Click Here for article.

Superior Breakthrough in Genetic Testing for Newborns in the NICU

In the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, more than half of the newborns there are born prematurely.  The remaining portion of the infants have problems that doctors have not diagnosed yet.  Scientists at Children's Mercy Hospital in Kansas City have had a breakthrough in genetic screening technology that can screen a newborn's DNA in about 26 hours.  The scientists have stated that the new screening process resulted from advancements in sequencing technology and technique to understand the function of the genes.  Screening starts with the doctor logging into a database (Phenomizer) which contains over 6,000 genetic variants for different problems in the babies. The Phenomizer connects symptoms to genetic variants in the system.  So, a doctor can type in the symptoms the newborn is having, and the Phenomizer will give back a number of genes that may be causing the issue.  These genes are sequenced and tested from the newborn to see if there is a mutation within the gene that matched up for those specific symptoms.

Normally the sequencing process takes about 50-60 hours, but with this more rapid technology, this is cut down into less than half.  The 26 hour process was tested on infants who already went through the longer 50-hour sequencing process and were diagnosed. The 26-hour process resulted in 99% accuracy linking to the same mutations as the 50-60 hour process.  The cost of this test is $20,000.

I think that when it comes to determining the diagnosis of a newborn, time is critical to the newborns health.  Diagnosis is needed in a timely fashion in order to prevent the problem from progressing and causing further health problems.  By cutting the time of sequencing in half, genetic specialists can tie mutations to diagnoses more aggressively.  This new way of sequencing genes and finding possible mutations is so new and there are so few forms of sequencing and analyzing genes, that the cost of this testing is extremely high.  Once further testing is done within the program and more ways of sequencing genes are discovered, the cost should decrease.

Cats are on the Map

Cats have finally made their way into the spot light of gene sequencing. Thanks to a team of geneticists lead by Leslie Lyons of the University of Missouri the complete genome of 56 domestic cats of have been sequenced. The team’s results were unveiled at the Plant and Animal Genome Conference in San Diego, California in January of 2015 although their project is still ongoing.

The 99 Lives Cat Genome Sequencing Initiative began in 2007 with Cinnamon, a four year old Abyssinian cat whose linage is well known and can be traced back several generations. It is now known that there are 20,285 putative genes on 19 chromosomes in the cat genome. It costs around $7,500 to sequence one cat. Several different species have been sequenced so far and the team is still working on reaching their goal of 99 cat genomes. 

The cat karyotype 

cats, cats, cats. <3 

New DNA Sequencing Method

     Genetics has come a long way in the past few years, but a new discovery by Evan Eichler, a professor of genome sciences at the University of Washington, and his colleagues, have discovered many new genetic variants by using new genome sequencing technology. The technique is called single-molecule, real time DNA sequencing (SMRT). Researchers may now be able to identify the genes and genetic mutations in some portions of genome mapping that have eluded scientists. Ultimately, this advancement in genetic mapping may explain the underlying genetic causes of some diseases and conditions.

Example of SMRT sequencing for 5-hmC gene.

     Standard genome sequencing methods are able to map about half of the genome precisely enough to know the genes related to about half of all known heritable diseases. The current way of mapping DNA involves cutting out small snippets of the DNA sequence and overlapping the segments and analyzing the sequence to map the genome. Even though this methods is very accurate and scientists have been able to identify many variation this way, they have been unable to use this method to detect variation that are 50-5,000 bases in length, leaving this part of the genome unknown to everyone.

      SMRT technology allowed Eichler and his colleagues to sequence and read DNA segments that are longer than 5,000 bases, something that cannot be done with standard gene sequencing technology. This technique allows researcher to create a much higher resolution and more well-structured map which leads to being able to detect more structure variation in base pairs. The researchers tested their new approach by doing the genome sequence of a mole. They were able to identify and sequence 26,079 segments that were different from the human genome and 22,000 of these variants had not been reported before. These results show that there is a lot of variation in the human genome that researchers can currently be missing. They were also able to identify 160 genome gaps that were not known before, close 50 gaps, and narrowed 40 others.

      I think that this is a very big advancement in DNA sequencing that will prove be extremely useful in the years to come. Being to to be more specific and uncover hidden genetic variants that can help identify the causes of certain diseases will be extremely helpful to the public, researchers, and doctors. The identification of more genetic variants will help us achieve and even better understanding of the human genome and will have very important, valuable implications for the future of disease diagnosis and prevention.

Original Article :New technology closes many human genome mapping gaps that have long resisted sequencing

Longevity in Brandt's Bat

The Brandt's bat is a species of bats that only weighs four to 8 grams as an adult. However, it can live to more than 40 years. Usually, small animals live short lives, however, this species says otherwise. This species of bat has the greatest disparity between its weight and longevity. Researchers became interested in this species and published an article revealing insights on the longevity of the bat. Through gene sequencing and genome comparison, specific sequence changes in the growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) receptors along with their adaptations like hibernation and low reproductive rate are seen to contribute to the bat's longevity. On a molecular level, the altered sequences in the GH and IGF1 are only sequences seen (as of right now) to have the strongest relationship to longevity.

Brandt's Bat

The fountain of youth, immortality, and extending life had always been a fascinating when I was growing up. Sure, immortality is still out of the question, but gene sequencing has brought aging under a whole new light. With genetics, the potential for slowing aging and extending life are now plausible. This research could lead to many revolutionary changes while also spring forth a whole variety of ethical concerns. Many issues that could be brought up may regard sustainability, the economy, and the future of aging. For future possible studies, a plan should be devised to use techniques based on gene regulation in order to extending life in other species of bat, or even other mammals. 

Cancer Centers Racing to Map Patients’ Genes

A recent New York Times article talks about the "arms race" that is taking place in the genetic community. Millions of dollars have been spent in recent years to create a way to quickly and effectively process genetic and other biological information. Mount Sinai medical center recently developed a $3 million supercomputer capable of making quick work of this information, while other New York hospitals and colleges are spending more than half a billion dollars on research facilities! This arms race has become a crucial part of an ongoing war: the war against cancer and other diseases.

The belief is that eventually being able to routinely sequence everyone's genome would lead to "precision medicine" or treatment based on the unique characteristics of a patient's genes. John Hopkins is looking to, within the next two years, develop a systematic genomic sequencing program that also includes an individual's environment, family history and other factors in order to create preventative  medicines (seen here) specific to the individual. The hope is that by understanding the genome, and where diseases come from, that scientists and doctors can, at the earliest age, implement preventive measures and medicines to combat diseases.

Although scientists are still a long way from generating useful information from the genome, this new race to be the first to do so, will speed up the process as well as increase the amount of genomes able to be sequenced.

Falling Prices Raise Hopes for Medical Advances in Gene Sequencing

    According to an article published in the New York Times on March 7, 2012, Silicon Valley, for many years, has been a forerunner in computer technology. Now, a life changing advancement in human gene sequencing has taken place. Bill Banyai, who is employed by Complete Genomics as an optical physicist, has helped develop a gene sequencing machine. These machines can map the three billion base pairs that comprise the human genome.  His computer background helped design a factory that produces these gene sequencing machines at a greatly reduced cost.

    Inexpensive gene sequencing will change personalized medicine greatly for the world. This includes treatments for serious diseases, such as cancers. These advancements are going to open up the semiconductor industry much like the PC and the SmartPhone did for consumer devices. The increase in transistor density and processing power go hand in hand with the costs decreasing rapidly.

     Complete Genomics is one of over 36 companies that are aggressively competing to reduce the cost of sequencing an entire human genome below $1,000. Their goal is to make the cost of gene sequencing as low as the cost of a blood test. The impact on the medical community for these costs to be so low will be profound.

Your Health, Revolutionized.

What if you knew in advance that you could possibly contract different forms of cancers, heart diseases, or diabetes? Would you be inclined to change your lifestyle and work towards preventing such conditions? More than likely the response would be yes. Such an innovation is now being made possible through whole-family genomic sequencing, in which a whole family's gene sequences are mapped out and compared in order to assess who may be at risk for certain diseases in the future. In the September 16, 2011 article from US News HealthDay entitled, "Family of Four Has Their Genome Sequenced," reporter Jenifer Goodwin discusses how executive geneticist John West and his family were sequenced after the two pulmonary embolisms West faced turned out to be consequences of the genetic mutation he possesses, the Factor V mutation. The test results compiled showed that out of his son and daughter, his daughter was at risk and possessed this mutation as well. In addition to not only the Factor V mutation, the family also discovered their increased risk for skin cancer as well as everyone, with the exception of the son, being at risk for esophageal inflammation. Such news spurred the family to take initiative and to become more aware of their lifestyle choices in order to prevent such things from happening. This remarkable innovation can now be used, and at an increasingly lower cost, to save more lives than one can think imaginable. Researchers believe that in the near future, genome sequencing will be so affordable that patients will be able to visit their doctors and hand them their own sequence; thus, allowing the doctor to develop lifestyle and habit needs on-the-spot and be able to prescribe different medications in order to prevent any diseases that patients may be predisposed to. I found this article, and these advancements, to be very relieving because there is a lot of history of diabetes in my family, and it would be beneficial to know whether or not I personally may be at risk and should see the disease as a threat. I feel like many people’s lives would be positively affected by these sequencings going mainstream and would improve the overall health and quality of life around the world.