Saliva Test May Turn Tide on Prostate Cancer, Scientist Claim

 A recent article by James Gallagher in BBC News discusses how scientists have developed a saliva test that could help remodel how prostate cancer screening is done. Around 12,000 men in the United Kingdom die each year from prostate cancer, and screenings have been growing more and more common since the Olympic Sir Chris Hoy announced his diagnosis.

The current blood tests available look for certain levels of prostate-specific antigens that cause many missing cases. This has caused a greater risk of harm than good. The saliva test does not look for signs of cancer, but 130 mutations could be found in DNA, increasing the risk of developing cancerous cells. This study was conducted on men ranging in ages 55 to 69 who are possibly at greater risk for this cancer. The overall outcome of the experiment showed that of 746 men, 187 were found to have prostate cancer, even saving 2 people's lives. The saliva test is on a transform trial while researchers discover the best way to screen people for prostate cancer.

15-Minute Gene Testing Will Aid Brain Cancer Surgery

 On February 26, 2025, an article was published by HealthDay U.S. News discussing how a more rapid version of an already existing gene test can be used to determine what cells are cancerous and how many are currently present in a certain tissue region. This test, known as the “Ultra-Rapid droplet digital PCR test”, has been evaluated for accuracy and scored the same as the standard droplet digital PCR test. The development of the Ultra-Rapid test was made possible by increasing the efficiency of the steps in the standard test like DNA extraction from tumor cells and sample treatment. As of right now this test is solely used for glioma tumors (a type of brain cancer), but with the hope of it being used for other types of cancers as well.

I believe that this has a really great potential for the future of cancer research and cancer removal surgery. The faster necessary data can get to surgeons and doctors, the more efficient operations can become. Though the Ultra-Rapid test still needs to go through more trials and refining before being more widely used, it creates hope for the future.

Bats Don't Get Cancer, and Scientists Are Closer to Understanding Why

 

One of the worlds most under looked animals has it own super powers. Bats have the ability to avoid cancer and handle infections which would devastate others. The key to understanding these abilities is found in their genetic make up.

In a recent study conducted by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, analyzing bat genomes and comparing them to other mammals have allowed anticancer and antiviral genes to be found. The hopes of these findings is to in a way translate it into helping humans. 

Bats are extraordinary animals. They are known for having a long life spans, strong immune systems, and have low cancer rates. There immune systems are so resilient that they have allowed them to become a vector species as they can tolerate viruses without being effected by them. This has given them a bad reputation in the eyes of society. 

In this study 2 types of bat species genomes were sequenced. The Jamaican Fruit Bat and the Mesoamerican Mustache bat. Next comprehensive comparative genomic analysis was conducted comparing these genomes to other bats and mammals. The results were shocking. Noted were specific adaptations in six DNA repair-related proteins and 46 cancer-suppression proteins in bats. In comparing these genomes to other mammals bats were found to have twice as many cancer related genes. 

The hopes of this study is to further understand the bats cancer resistant genes linking to immunity and their immune system resilience. The goal is to help prevent cross-species disease jumps from animals to people by using bat immune system findings and to better understand the link between cancer and immune systems and possibly find a way to prevent it. 

I find this truly amazing. I personally have always loved bats and felt bad for the bad reputation they get for being vector species. But learning more and looking further into just why the make such good vector species and how they may help humans in the future I hope it will change society view about them. 

Links:

https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2023-09-20/bats-dont-get-cancer-and-scientists-are-closer-to-understanding-why

https://www.science.org/content/article/how-bats-have-outsmarted-viruses-including-coronaviruses-65-million-years

Gene Therapy: Effectiveness on Rare Brain Disease in Boys

Gene therapy was studied on a range of genetic diseases and were followed up later in life. One of those, a rare brain disease “Cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy,” results in a loss of neurological function and early death which happens in children in “the prime of their childhood development.” There were 77 boys which received “eli-cel” (elivaldogene autotemcel) therapy six years ago. The therapy places a healthy ABCD1 gene onto a Lenti-D lentivirus which replaces the malfunctioning ABCD1 gene. Today most of the boys are free of disability and show no decline in brain function. In another study, 6 of 35 similar patients developed blood cancers associated with the therapy but is considered a better situation compared to the imminent death most of the boys faced before the therapy. The researchers are trying to figure out where and how this problem arises in their therapy process to hopefully further improve its effectiveness.

Other studies show similar effectiveness in eli-cel gene therapy. 94% of 32, 3-13 year old boys, showed no loss of neurological function and 80% were disability free. In another trial containing 35 similarly aged boys, 6 of the boys ended up with a blood cancer again. 5 of them have myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), where blood cells are improperly formed, and 1 has AML, where too many white blood cells are produced.

These studies are great because they show that gene therapy is increasing in its effectiveness and can be used more often to treat these various genetic diseases. I believe that receiving a cancer is better than living with severe disability and imminent death. I hope that these studies continue, and the researchers can discover a way to either improve or adjust the therapy in a way which the chances of side effects like cancer are severely reduced. Maybe they can get it to the point where there are 0 side effects and expand the therapy to other types of genetic diseases.

Links

https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2024-10-10/boys-treated-with-gene-therapy-for-rare-brain-disease-doing-well-6-years-later

https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/cellular-gene-therapy-products/what-gene-therapy

Using Genetics to Predict a Patient's Risk for Major Diseases

 

  

    In a recent article written by Dennis Thompson, written in the U.S. News and World Report, he describes a recent study undertaken by researchers at Harvard and MIT that utilized genetic testing to predict a patient's risk for 10 major medical conditions. These conditions included: atrial fibrillation, breast cancer, kidney disease, heart disease, high cholesterol, prostate cancer, asthma, type 1 and type 2 diabetes and obesity.

    The study was able to predict people's risk by assigning a risk score calculated by analyzing genes associated with the conditions in a diverse group of 2,500 people. Researches also used data from a federally funded research program known as All of Us. This dataset included over 1 million people including a sizeable percentage of people from backgrounds other than European. Due to the success of this study, the tests are now being used to evaluate the risk of 25,000 patients in 10 academic medical centers across the United States. These academic medical centers are all a part of the Electronic Medical Records and Genetics network, meaning that the data they gather will be share across the scientific community in order to further advance the fields of genetics and medicine.

    I believe that this article is important because it highlights new advancements in predicting major medical conditions. Although not all of these medical conditions are deadly, many of them can be life threatening which is why it is important to catch them early. By catching these conditions before they arise it is easier to prevent them and treat them effectively, providing patients with the best possible care.

Lung cancer cells' 'memories' suggest new strategy for improving treatment

A common type of cell lung cancer that is mutated by the KRAS gene is called lung adenocarcinoma and researchers at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center have found new strategies for improving the treatment for it. Tuomas Tammela who is a cancer scientist who led the study found alveolar type 1 (AT1) cells which have a "memory" of their beginning as healthy cells. Also known as "AT1-like" cells which are cancer cells that remain while the KRAS inhibitor treatment is going on. The cell's presence is a negative thing since it leads to treatment resistance and can aid in the cancer coming back. The second article also supports the findings from the Science Daily article. 

The results from this study hope to help scientists come up with new improved strategies for lung cancer treatments and find a solution against the resistance of KRAS inhibitors. I believe that if they do more research and spend more time understanding the movements and functions of the AT1 cells they will find more meaningful discoveries which would help with the treatments. The researchers also plan to identify which surface proteins are different from AT1 cells and then create a therapeutic treatment that will bind both of them and kill them. 

Links 

- Lung cancer cells' 'memories' suggest new strategy for improving treatment | ScienceDaily

- Lung cancer cells' 'memories' suggest new strategy for improving treatment (medicalxpress.com)

Cancers Protect Themselves From Their Own Mutations

 

A new study has shown how it is possible that cancerous tumors accumulate thousands of damaging mutations over time while yet being able to continue to thrive. Genes that minimize the misfolding of proteins are up-regulated by tumors with a large number of mutations which is why they are protected from their own mutations. Research was conducted on the gene expression on over 10,300 human tumors across 33 cancer types. It was found that there was a consistent up-regulation of chaperone proteins and proteasome which degrade misfolded proteins. Researchers validated their findings by using cell line data which showed higher mutational load in correlation with lower cell viability, which suggests that gene upregulation protects tumors. This finding shows that there is a weakness in tumors that could be exploited and possibly could lead to new therapeutic opportunities. 

A precision drug for prostate cancer may slow the disease’s spread

 

Links:
Article: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/prostate-cancer-drug-olaparib-slow-spread
Related Article: https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.bbc.com/news/amp/health-49877843


Recently, researchers have discovered that a drug used to treat breast and ovarian cancers is also tied to certain genetic mutations that may help combat some of the most severe cases of prostate cancer.
Researchers tested the drug, called olaparib, in a randomized clinical trial of nearly 400 men with advanced prostate cancer and a mutation in one of several genes involved in repairing damaged DNA, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2. 
Overall in men given olaparib, the disease progressed more slowly compared with those on standard treatment drugs that deprive cancer cells of the male hormone testosterone. After a year, about 22 percent of men taking olaparib had no signs that their cancer was progressing, compared with 13.5 percent of men on the standard treatments, the researchers reported September 30 in Barcelona at the European Society of Medical Oncology meeting.

This was a very interesting article to read. Although it is too early to say how the drug will impact overall survival , this new treatment looks promising so far, potentially buying some patients a few more months 

CRISPR is Entering its First Human Trials

Genetic diseases are generally inevitable, but are they really? Thanks to a gene editing technology, known as the "molecular scissors" CRISPR/Cas9, we may be able to cut out genes that are causing certain diseases. CRISPR has been used in animals to cure diseases, but now the first human trials are just starting up now. These "molecular scissors" don't just cut anything and everything. CRISPR is a short piece of genetic RNA material, and Cas9 is an enzyme that leads the CRISPR to the piece of DNA that needs to be cut. In the first human trials, scientists are attempting to fight cancer, blood disorders and inherited blindness. In the blood and cancer trials, scientists take cells from the patients bodies and place them in a petri dish, and CRISPR/Cas9 is injected into the cells and the DNA is then edited. Scientists have a way of determining whether the right DNA was edited or not. Then, these edited cells are injected back into the patient. I find CRISPR to be extremely interesting, and I think it could be a truly remarkable discovery if it does in fact prove to be successful. It would help millions upon millions of people. Part of it scares me because if it edits the wrong genes, it could be deadly.

Original Article: https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/crispr-enters-its-first-human-trials
Supporting Article: https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-11-doctors-crispr-gene-cancer-1st.html

Genetic Tests Cost a Pretty Penny for Cancer Patients

https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2019-11-01/many-cancer-docs-dont-discuss-costs-of-pricey-gene-tests
https://www.webmd.com/health-insurance/news/20191101/many-cancer-docs-dont-discuss-costs-of-pricey-gene-tests?src=rss_public

Genomic tests ran on people who have cancer can really define the best tests and treatments that these patients should undergo. These tests are very expensive and many of them are not covered by insurance companies. In this post, data was collected from over a thousand oncologists about how to go about testing these patients should get for the best interest of themselves but their pockets as well. Over fifty percent of doctors go over costs with their patients so they are aware, but over twenty five percent do not. I understand why the cost might not be brought up because any amount of money is less important than the cost of your life, and if they test were to save your life who cares how much money it would cost.  Cancer treatment costs are rising and so are the genomic testing prices, it’s a real shame innocent people have to go through this. As if having cancer was not enough, the medical bills start to pile up. 

The topic of genomic testing for cancer patients hits close to home due to my sister having to get her genetics ran this past January when she was diagnosed with stage three breast cancer. This journey was hard and long, but the doctors were brilliant, and the doctors told her to obtain this testing to see if she had the genes breast cancer codes for or was this just an environmental cause. This process could become very frustrating because there are no answers to why someone has cancer, and having a test done costing so much money is a waste of money that these people do not have to spare.

A New Approach to Detecting Cancer Earlier From Blood Tests

        Dr. Daniel De Carvalho an immunologist at Princess Margaret Cancer Centre located in Toronto, Ontario, has had scientists working hard to use "liquid biopsy's", such as blood tests, for epigenetic alterations to detect cancer in its earliest stages, enabling early treatment.  Dr. Carvalho describes that they are able to detect cancer at its earliest stages allowing patients easier treatment and no suffering.  This is done by profiling epigenetic alterations instead of its mutations.  This allowed the scientists to discover thousands of modifications specific to each type of cancer there is.  The scientists then used machine learning to be able to identify DNA present in cancer.  It is then able to use the blood sample to determine what cancer type is prevalent.  

          

  

            The scientists used 300 patients tumor samples and tracked the origin of their cancers and compared them to "samples from healthy donors with the analysis of cel-free DNA circulating in the blood plasma.  In every sample, the "floating" plasma DNA matched the tumor DNA.  The team has since expanded the research and has now profiled and successfully matched more than 700 tour and blood samples from more cancer types."  (University Health Network)  Some cancer types include lung, pancreatic, colorectal, breast, leukemia, bladder, and kidney cancer.  

             To further the study and expand their horizons they want to use a large populations blood samples that have been collected for months before they could detect it with cancer.  This will advance their abilities in cancer screening.  The biggest issue has been finding a way to detect cancer early enough, so that it can be treated quickly without further symptoms occurring, and hopefully this is the answer to all of our problems.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/11/181114132000.htm

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/in-depth/cancer-diagnosis/art-20046459

What's the Likelihood That CRISPR Will Cure Cancer?

        As you may know, after taking biology courses in high school and college, DNA is an extremely important aspect in everything living.  DNA is subject to change, and go through transformations after being exposed to environmental and genetic factors.  Sometimes after DNA is exposed to different influences, its sequence changes, and new genetic codes are created, which sometimes can result in diseases and disorders, one being cancer. 

        CRISPR, or Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat, is new technology that has the ability to edit and modify genes.  Even though there are multiple gene editing tools, CRISPR is the most precise and practical one, because it has the ability to edit the DNA at the specific spots effected.  With this new technology scientists are able to modify genes and correct DNA sequences at specific locations permanently, and cut out the DNA code.  Our hope is that one day scientists can "be able to easily correct the errors that can crop up in our genetic code, leading to advanced cures for genetic diseases and cancer." (Howley, 2018)

       After research, and using CRISPR, doctor's have been able to alter embryonic DNA to eradicate genetic diseases in DNA sequences.  Experts know that CRISPR has the capabilitiy to change DNA to "cure" someone from a disease, the only thing is that the genetic edits must be made to each and every single cell that's involved in that disease process, which is a difficult thing to accomplish, considering there are millions.  Hopefully, as CRISPR continues to develop and flourish we can develop a way to treat cancer.  Since cancer has the ability to spread and develop all over the body CRISPR would have to change the genetic mutation that caused the cells around a persons entire  body to become cancerous, back to normal.  Dr. Alan B. Copperman, from Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, has his own approach to use the technology in cancer gene editing, and is already being used to try and treat those with leukemia and lymphoma.  For example, his idea "involves removing some of a patient's own immune cells (T cells), re-programming them using CRISPR and then infusing these cells back into the patient to fight the cancer.  This personalized immunotherapy approach should help in fighting off many different types of cancers." (Howley, 2018)

      CRISPR has a long way to go, and doctor's around the world are working hard to change the lives of those in need, and give patients the opportunity to receive treatment. 

https://health.usnews.com/health-care/patient-advice/articles/2018-09-12/whats-the-likelihood-that-crispr-will-cure-cancer

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/genomicresearch/genomeediting

Scientists discover enzyme that supports brain tumor growth

        A group of researchers from the University of Texas MD Anderson Center in Houston has discovered an enzyme that is found to assist in the growth of brain tumors. This finding can possibly be a big help to scientists trying to come up with new potential tumor treatment approaches. The observation here was that a specific enzyme - acetyl CoA synthetase 2 (ACSS2) is responsible for providing tumors with a route to survive. The ACSS2 allows production of cellular structures which aid tumor development.

        The head researcher, Zhimin Lu, Ph.D., (professor of neuro-oncology) and his colleagues used a gene editing tool called CRISPR to see what ACSS2 does in histone acetylation by generating acetyl CoA from acetate inside the nucleus of the cell. Just to clarify, "histones," are proteins that act as "spools" for DNA to wind around and are vital for gene regulation. Histone modification using a metabolic enzyme was found to be significant for cells to remain stable and for the development of tumors. 

    In the words of Dr. Lu, "These findings elucidate an instrumental interplay between reprogramming of metabolism and gene expression in cancer cells. Inhibition of both ACSS2's nuclear function and the metabolic pathway, known as glycolysis, which converts glucose to tumor-feeding energy, appears to be an efficient approach for cancer treatment." 

        This research and the enzyme discovery provides new information regarding nuclear translocation. It is very important and an exciting finding because it shows how ACSS2 can potentially be a player in new therapeutic approaches for treating cancer. With each new discovery, we are getting closer to finding the cure for cancer, making every single finding another step in the right direction! 

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/317654.php?sr

http://neurosciencenews.com/acss2-enzyme-brain-cancer-6775/

Smart Protein Molecule

To begin, I chose this article because it makes me happy that we are close to the idea that we are extremely near finding the cure to cancer. Researchers specifically, bioengineering professors at the University of California have created a "smart" protein that is able to tell white blood cells to become better cancer fighters. What the protein actually does is that it tells cells to ignore self destructing signals. Cancer cells use the mechanism in that they make the cells attack and self destruct, spreading to more of the body. They have called this smart molecule protein "iSnap." They have inserted into a macrophage which is a white blood cell. They then discovered that it made the cells react and engulf and divide cancer cells.


Personally, I really enjoyed this article because I love to hear when medicine is advancing with technology.  Perfecting this new finding will most definitely lead to immune cells being able to fight cancer cells leading to a cure to cancer. Realistically, this mechanism will also be able to fight diseases which will help the medicine field. The study was also done on rapidly dividing cancer cells and its success foreshadows a cure to even the toughest of cancers.



Reference: University of California - San Diego. (2017, September 28). Smart molecules trigger white blood cells to become better cancer-eating machines. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 9, 2017 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/09/170928142121.htm
Picture : https://fthmb.tqn.com/5ry863qfeVyF7xsdP1u66r1muo4=/768x0/filters:no_upscale()/h20-58e655f93df78c5162ea0a1f.jpg

Infinite sunscreen made from DNA.

A news article from Popular Science gives credit to a group of scientist in discovering a transforming way to stop skin cancer. Their report is featured in Science Reports and found that DNA crystals helps in absorbing heavy amounts of UV light. This finding could open eyes towards the skincare culture and also the prevention of skin cancer. When DNA film is coated on to the skin, it hydrates skin cells for a very long time by slowing the cell's water evaporation. The sun has exposed human skin to great amounts of carcinogen for awhile which unfortunately leads to massive amounts of skin cancer patients . But Popular Science suggest maybe a sunscreen could be created after all of this. The report give due to the DNA's "optical, novel electrical, and biosensing properties". Could the ending of skin cancer be coming soon? Hopefully a revolutionary sunscreen could be hitting stores in the near future.

Turning off genes, the recent way.

A article from Science Daily reported that scientists have discovered an amazing way to turn off genes. They experimented with mice and have uncovered this new approach towards shutting off imprinted genes. To start off, imprinted genes have affected human DNA for some time now, replicating unwanted genes which ultimately damages human beings by causing developmental and neurological disorders or worse, cancer. However, a new component towards turning off genes is by chemical tagging histones, a type of protein that aids in keeping DNA wrapped safely in the nucleus. A histone called H3K27 effectively ceases the activity of some imprinted genes in mice. Yi Zhang, an investigator from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and his colleagues had reported this in a journal called Nature. Yi Zhang says this new finding could improve children who are born with developmental disorders by assisted reproductive technologies such as vitro fertilization. Also, the issues with cloning of mammals could be explained. Mr.Zhang has great expectations with this discovery and has said that he "believes our study will open up a new field of research" Mr Zhang approach towards "silencing" the imprinted genes is by adding methyl groups to the histones. Although this discovery is a massive step towards defeating replicated genes, researchers are still learning about the imprinting process of genes being replicated. But with this significant finding, it is said that diseases such as Angelman syndrome and Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome could be reduced. Also, cloning of mammals could be less difficult in the upcoming years as well. Mr Zhang concluded by saying " The new imprinting mechanism may eventually offer a target for treating such development failures"

Personalized Cancer Vaccines

Flu vaccine. Hopefully future research will allow for individualized vaccines against cancer (photo from Wikimedia Commons)

   Although advances such as the human papillomavirus vaccine (HPV) have worked to prevent the onset certain strains of cancer, treating cancer itself is a more difficult task. Over the years, researchers have strived to create treatments tailored specifically to the patient's needs. Now, they are one step closer.
    This article highlights several recent studies that suggest the possibility of tailoring cancer treatment specifically to patients. In the past, failed vaccines targeted specific cancer proteins that were present across people with the same type of cancer. However, now work has been done to include multiple mutated genes (neoantigens) from a specific patient's tumor, in hopes of priming their immune system to fight off the cancer. In one of the studies, a patient's tumor was removed, sequenced, and the neoantigen sequences were predicted using a computational system.
    Although promising, these studies were originally designed to test the safety of such techniques. However, hopefully further studies can one day verify this as an effective means to treat cancer. This pertains to class because it suggests an application for sequencing DNA in order to create mutated proteins (through transcription and translation).

Intro to Personalized Medicine

Original Article

Multi Drug-Resistant Pathogens

Animals are often given antibiotics in their food or sprayed on them so they ingest it when they clean themselves. The use of antibiotics in animals was thought to prevent disease and therefore produce more healthy livestock. However, pathogens are now becoming resistant to more and more antibiotics. Since the antibiotics are only killing off the pathogens that are not resistant to bacteria,the antibiotic resistant pathogens are thriving and are flourishing. 
A study was performed to find out how resistant they are becoming. Investigators sequenced 11 pathogen's genomes from chickens and the broilers of India. Each pathogen was resistant to at least five antibiotics in the fluoroquinolone, cephalosporin, sulfonamides, and macrolide families.  H. pollorum can be harmful to humans and livestock since it carries a toxin that interferes with the cell cycle. Interference with the cell cycle ultimately leads to cancer. The pathogen is a health concern due to the antibiotic resistance created by the abuse of antibiotics. The consumption of chicken in India and all over the world is becoming more and more prevalent which could lead to more antibiotic resistant bacteria. In the United States, 80% of antibiotics sold are given to livestock. In 2013 alone, 53% of sampled chicken was E. Coli resistant.
Back when it was decided to use antibiotics in livestock it made sense to the farmer/big business because their livestock could possibly live longer. If the pathogens were not making their livestock sick because the chickens and cows and whatever else are pre-treated with antibiotics, the business is making money. The introduction of antibiotics was rather selfish and could lead to more bad than it did good. Initially, it was a good idea but it should have been researched more. Antibiotics is over used in so many cases, even humans. Many people will insist on the prescription of an antibiotic to get better when it is not necessary. The use of antibiotics should be more strict and more limited. All we can do now is stop over-using antibiotics so more pathogens are not antibiotic resistant. 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/11/161104191327.htm
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/02/150213-antibiotic-resistance-animals-ngfood/

Breast Cancer Milestone

Cancers are like biological terrorists that hide in the body and then attack it without warning. They can happen in several places, from the lungs to the prostate to the genitalia and essentially anywhere in the body, spreading from its origin to infect other parts rapidly. One of the most talked about types of cancer is breast cancer, something that most of the time affects women but can affect men in a similar but different way. For many years, breast cancer has been researched so that a cure could be developed, but no significant breakthroughs have been made cure-wise.

However, a recent study published in Nature magazine confirms that scientists have an "almost perfect picture of the genetic events that cause breast cancer." It is a "milestone moment" in genetic history that can shed light on possible treatments and even ways to keep the body from making the cancer cells in the first place. This study, conducted by Cambridge professor Mike Stratton, brought to light all the problems that can occur in body tissues that can cause them to become cancerous, as well as finding 93 genes that can cause cancer in the body if they become mutated in a certain way.

Over the years, drugs have been created to combat certain mutations in genes, but the definite mutations in the body were not known yet, so the treatments were uncertain to be effective all the time in tests. Now that the study has listed what the mutations are specifically, these drugs, like Herceptin, can be fine tuned and specialized for the mutations that cause cancer. While this seems like a very promising situation, it comes with the stipulation that "60% of the mutations driving cancer are found in just 10 genes," as the article mentions. 10 genes out of the entire human genome is a tricky predicament for scientists, but some of those mutation are so rare that developing drugs for them are not worth it in the first place.

Breast cancer mutations can stem from several different sources, from family to attacking viruses and suffering damage. In the future, as Dr. Serena Nik-Zainal says " In the future, we'd like to be able to profile individual cancer genomes so that we can identify the treatment most likely to be successful for a woman or a man diagnosed with breast cancer." The fact that these mutations have been found in the first place is an important step towards finding the cure for this specific cancer, as well as other ones if the mutations affect genes in similar ways to breast cancer genes. Hopefully in the future, treatments to prevent and cure cancer will be available to the public and harmful chemotherapy will no long have to be the go to option.