U.S. Scientists Sucessfully Use CRISPR to Research a Cure for Genetic Diseases in Human Embryos

The U.S. was not the first scientists to do research with CRISPR to cut DNA to edit the genomes of human embryos. Chinese scientists attempted similar experiments, but not enough embryos were viable after the use of CRISPR for it to be considered successful. These Chinese scientists collaborated with Shoukhrat Mitalipov (Oregon Health and Science University) and other researchers from South Korea to find more successful results to their study. The earliest stage possible of a human embryo is when it is only one cell, at this point is when they added CRISPR. As the embryo developed and cells divided the genetic traits were passed on to all cells. For ethical and legal reasons, the embryos that were used were made for research only and are not capable of developing past three days. The genetic defect in these embryos caused serious heart problems and after the CRISPR cut the DNA of the human embryo and additional genome editing technology was used, successful results were shown and 72% of the embryos had no sign of the genetic defects anymore several days later. This does not mean that tomorrow these procedures will be available to everyone in real human embryos; but it does mean that we are one giant step closer to ending genetic diseases. Many people believe using human embryos is not ethical and should not be done, but what these people do not understand is that the research is being done on specially designed human embryos for research purpose only so they will never have the potential to one day become life. This research needs to continue because it is truly amazing how far we have come with CRISPR considering it was only discovered as a possible way to fix genetic diseases just in 2012.

Article URL: http://time.com/4882855/crispr-gene-editing-human-embryo/

Additional Information: https://www.nature.com/articles/nature23305.pdf

Studies show that high fat diets may be linked to higher chances of prostate cancer metastasis

An article done by the New York Times explains how a diet of high fatty substances may increase not just the growth of prostate cancer, but also speed up the metastasis process. This has to do with the loss of a particular gene. In a test done with lab mice, when this gene is stripped from the cancer, the prostate develops fat cells and releases them throughout the body, causing harmful effects. This does not, however, indicate that prostate cancers that have NOT lost this gene do not metastasize. If a readily source of fat is present in the body from certain diets, the cancer can also spread. Cory Abate-Shen, the interim director at the Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center at Colombia University analyzes the results of the experiment that “high-fat diets promote a more aggressive prostate cancer”. This study comes as a shock to geneticists, who understood that this type of cancer usually starts when PTEN (phosphate and tensin homolog), a protective gene, either fails/shuts down. This however rarely promotes spreading of the cancer cells, and remains mostly affecting the prostate. Another gene, PML (progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy) however, causes the cancer cells to spread and more than likely being lethal. These cells in a new study have seem to produce fat, which in return helps the cancer spread quicker. The correlation between a fatty diet and the loss of PML gene was found again in lab mice, with the mice that had lacked the PML gene and were fed a high fatty diet had a much higher metastasis rate than those that were fed a low-fat vegetarian diet. This raises questions such as if high sugar diets (which also cause obesity), correlate to higher risk of prostate cancer metastasis. Prostate cancer is the second highest diagnosed cancer in men with 165,000 American’s being diagnosed each year, with 29,500 fatalities per year. In order to combat and lower one’s risk of prostate cancer, diet and exercise must be maintained. Pharmacologic medications (such as anti-obesity medications) also may be of assistance, for example Metformin (Glucophage), Bupropion/naltrexone (Contrave), and Phentermine/topiramate (Qsymia & Mysimba).

I found this article to be very informative and interesting. For someone that has prostate cancer in their family history, the article can be very helpful in justifying on what types of diets you should be avoiding and what types of diets you should be ingesting. These studies however, leave a lot of question unanswered as explained in the article summary. More tests on certain types of diets need to be performed in order to see if high fat or obesity truly does cause a higher risk in prostate cancer metastasis.

(Link to article)
(Related Article)

The Key to Weight Loss Is Diet Quality, Not Quantity, a New Study Finds

Today’s modern society is focused on a healthier lifestyle and different diets.Typically when people go on diets for weight loss, the standard procedure is to count and reduce the amount of calories in foods that are consumed. However, new studies are showing that those who do not focus on counting calories or reducing portions, and instead focus on avoiding processed foods and eating plenty of fruits and vegetables had a more significant weight loss. But what about genetics? Does DNA makeup determine what type of diet is suited for each person? No, according to the study's results, "their success did not appear to be influenced by their genetics or their insulin-response to carbohydrates, a finding that casts doubt on the increasing popular idea that different diets should be recommended to people bases on their DNA makeup or on their tolerance for carbs and fats.” Furthermore, another study tested the hypothesis using a different method by offering people specific diets pertaining to their genotype. Again, results found that the, “genotypes did not appear to influence their response to the diets.” However, the studies do not stop there as the department at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health is planning to look further into other genetic factors.

I found this article to be interesting because living a healthy lifestyle has played a big role in social media and it demonstrates the million of ways to do so. People always recommend their way of eating healthy and getting in shape and I have always wondered if it matter about the person’s genetic makeup and/or family background. But now, for those to pick a way to have a healthy lifestyle really depends on the person’s interest, desire and drive. All ways of losing weight has the same underlying basis but there are still different techniques to go about it.

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/20/well/eat/counting-calories-weight-loss-diet-dieting-low-carb-low-fat.html

https://futurism.com/dna-based-diets-dont-work/

Are gaze patterns affected by our genetics?

A study was done by Indiana University to test if eye movement, or gaze pattern, is controlled by genetics. The purpose of the study was to help us understand the differences between individuals’ gaze patterns and to see if they are influenced by genetics. Eye movement is an important thing to study because one of the first ways that we interact with our environment is through visual exploration. This study compared the gaze patterns of 233 pairs of twins (ages 9 to 14) of which about half were identical twins. The children’s gaze patterns were measured with an eye tracker which tracks movements in space and time. They also looked at how many features in the scene the children looked at, some only looked at one or two while others looked at many different features in the scene. They found similarities in the gaze patterns of both the identical and fraternal twins but saw much stronger similarities between the identical twins. They could match the correct twins using their gaze patterns, this is called gaze fingerprinting. The results support the hypothesis that the way we visually explore our environment is due to our genetics. 

This picture shows how the gaze patterns of twins were compared. They did not clarify if this was a set of identical or fraternal twins. I would have liked to have seen more pictures comparing identical twins, fraternal twins, and two unrelated people. I found it very interesting that they could identify a set of twins using their gaze patterns. It made me wonder what the similarities are between family members’ gaze patterns such as a parent and child. 

This is the link to the original paper that ScienceDaily used to write the article.

Diet Quality, Not Quantity

Researchers at Stanford Prevention Research Center conducted a large scale study to see if reduction in fat and carbohydrates without cutting calories affected weight loss in individuals suffering from obesity. The researchers recruited 600 people from the bay area and split the group into two categories: one group focusing on a low fat diet while another group focused on a low carbohydrate diet. All participants in the study met weekly with dieticians to learn how to manage their new diet and how to prepare healthy home cooked meals. Throughout the study the researchers emphasized for the participants to eat unprocessed foods, that are not high in sugar or have a lot of preservatives. In a year, the average weight loss for participants in the low carbohydrate group was 13 pounds and for the those in the low fat group it was 11.7 pounds.

To go even deeper each individual was DNA tested to see if there was any variants that affected their response to the diet. The scientists found no variants that affected their response and when testing the low carbohydrate diet group they did not find variants for higher secretions of insulin. Besides overall weight loss, an improvement in waist size, blood pressure, body fat percent, and blood sugar was found. The researchers concluded that by focusing on better quality foods the participants unknowingly consumed less calories and felt full more often. With more research, those at the Stanford Prevention Research Center hope that there will be more of an emphasis on what we eat not how much we eat. As a person who struggles with weight I find this article fascinating because those of us who struggle with weight may not have to cut calories and essentially starve ourselves to achieve healthy weight loss.
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/healthy-eating-plate/
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/20/well/eat/counting-calories-weight-loss-diet-dieting-low-carb-low-fat.html

Cheddar Man: a Portrait of Britian's First Known Man

In 1903, in Gough’s Cave near the village of Cheddar in Somerset, in southwest England the bones of a 10,000 year old skeleton from the Mesolithic period were found. This skeleton was named Cheddar Man after it's closeness in proximity to the village of Cheddar. Scientists at the Natural History Museum and University College London were able to obtain the DNA of Cheddar Man by drilling a small hole into his skull and collecting the bone powder. By sequencing the DNA from the bone powder the scientists were able to reconstruct  Cheddar Man's face. They discovered that Cheddar Man was dark skinned, dark haired, and had blue eyes.

Cheddar Man's DNA shows that he belonged to a group of Western hunter-gatherers, who first migrated to Europe about 14,000 years ago. 10 percent of British ancestry can be traced back to this particular group. It is currently believed that light skin and dark skin variants arose in Africa 300,000  years ago. Humans first arrived in Europe around 45,000 years ago but the light skinned variant was not brought to Europe until 6,000 years ago. The light skin variant was mostly brought over from people who descended from the near east. The sequencing of Cheddar Man's DNA raises the question of why it took close to 40,000 years for Europeans to make the transition over from darker skin to light? As a person whose heritage is primarily from the British Isles, it makes me wonder why my ancestors skin color changed and could I possibly be related to Cheddar Man?  
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/07/world/europe/uk-cheddar-man-skeleton-skin.html
https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/human-journey/

4,000 Year Old Egyptian Mummies Thought To Be Brothers

Coffins of two mummies who may be brothers are displayed in the Manchester Museum. Some anticipated the thought of the two mummies being brothers for many reasons. Scholars pointed out that the anatomy of the skulls were different and researchers began studying scraps of their skins. From this information, researchers concluded that their complexions revealed that they do not share parents. Genetic studies are being tested to help determine if these conclusions are true. The researchers began to analyze DNA and have also dug deeper into the mummies Y chromosome, which were inherited from their father. The DNA results showed that complete mitochondrial profiles have been recovered, therefore making them being able to say confidently that they are maternally related. According to an article on News Week, "The researchers say that the different treatments of mothers and fathers in the inscriptions suggest that maternal heritage was more important to the ancient Egyptians than paternal heritage was." I found this article interesting because I think that it is cool that there is technology out there to be able to help researchers trace back ancestry. Even including mummies, that is something that always seemed interesting to me throughout history.

Apert Syndrome

     The characteristics of a person who is suffering from Apert syndrome includes a cone shaped skull, a face that is deep set in the middle, eyes bulging outwards, a beaked nose, and underdeveloped upper jaw. The symptoms include hearing loss, acne, heavy sweating, fusion of spinal bones in the neck, oily skin, missing hair, growth/ development delays, ear infection, cleft palate, and mild to moderate intellectual disabilities.
      Scientists have discovered that this disability is caused by a mutation of the FGFR2 gene. Research has proven that this mutation can occur in children who don't have a family history of this disorder and can also be inherited through family history. The FHFR2 gene produces a protein called fibroblast growth factor receptor 2. This protein holds many responsibilities in reference to signaling bone cell development. When Apert Syndrome occurs, FGFR2 signals longer than it normally does which results in fusion of the skull, facial, feet, and hand bones.
     Apert syndrome is very rare and the exact number of cases is unknown. However researchers know that this disorder can appear with no family history. They also know that if one parent has this disorder the child will have a fifty percent chance to have the disease. The syndrome is equally prevalent between both males and females therefore it does not seem to be sex linked.

Is There A Such Thing As The Autism Gene?

Scientists discovered twins that both have autism and have concluded that autism is highly heritable. Scientists are now trying to discover if there is a specific gene in our bodies that leads to causing autism. Some environmental factors that lead to autism are those such as exposure to a maternal immune response in the womb or complications during birth. Although their may be several conditions tied to autism, it is known to stem from mutations in a single gene. Therefore, scientists are leading to believe their is no exact autism gene. It is then suggested that Autism is therefore caused by combinations of genes acting together. An article on NY Times states that a lower risk ratio comes from sharing half of ones genes, as for fraternal twins or siblings. Growing up with a cousin who has autism, I have experienced first hand what it is like to help raise and guide them. It is truly an eyeopener, for the shear fact that I get to see her grow and make progress in everything she does. She picks up on things fast, knows every channel to my TV and loves to sing.

Skin Replacement Saves Dying Boy

Scientists altered stem cells to grow skin to help those who have skin disease and those who are burn victims. This was tested on a 7-year-old boy who suffers junctional epidermolysis bullosa, which makes skin so fragile that even simple rubbing can cause the skin to blister or come apart. The Boy had complete epidural loss on majority of his body. He was in so much pain that he was on morphine, and fighting off a staph infection. The doctors gave antibiotics, changed dressings, grafted skin donated by his father. The new study exhibits safety of replacing the entire epidermis using and shows how different types of cells work together to help our skin renew itself. In another article on the NY Times, Other researchers have also tried bone-marrow transplants to correct the genetic flaws in the disease, but several children have died from the side effects of that arduous treatment, and results have been mixed in those who survived. I think it is interesting that there are so many studies going on trying to help those who have skin diseases and those who have been involved in fire. Hopefully the research can continue so those who suffering from epidermolysis bullosa are helped.

The First Treatment For Breast Cancer

The Food and Drug Administration finally released the first treatment for patients who have breast cancer caused by BRCA mutations. BRCA mutations are genetic defects that raise the risk of malignancies.The agency said its approval was based on a random clinical trial, that was done with 300 breast cancer patients with BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 mutations. After the trial was over, results showed that the length of time where the tumors did not grow, was a median of 7 months for patients treated with Lynparza compared to 4.2 months for patients receiving chemotherapy. According to the agency, Lynparaza however did not improve the length of survival.

The FDA also approved Myriad Genetics diagnostic test, called BRACAnalysis CDx, as a companion to Lynparza. The Myriad Genetics diagnostic test was previously cleared for ovarian cancer patients, and identifies which breast cancer patients have BRCA mutations. About 5 percent to 10 percent of patients with breast cancer have a BRCA mutation. According to another website called, Rethink The Link, BRCA gene mutations increase the risk of cancer tremendously, and most common type being breast cancer. The BRCA gene also cannot be easily identified based on patient tumor characteristics. After reading more about BRCA 1, BRCA 2 and how it affects those with breast cancer, I'm hoping one day there will finally be a cure for cancer. The amount of friends and families affected has increased greatly. Especially knowing someone so close to you going through such a horrible disease is a hard thing to watch. Many people in my family have passed away from cancer, and I hope doctors can come together to help save the ones we love who are suffering.

Clean Meats: A multi-million investment

Billionaire icons Bill Gates, and Richard Branson, didn’t get to were they are without making smart, and intuitive investments. So why is it that both of these tycoons are investing in a meat company, called Memphis Meats?  Well it turns out that Memphis Meats is no ordinary meat company, in fact, it is the first organization to produce beef, chicken, and duck meat directly from stem cells. This means that the company produces meat that does not require the breeding or slaughtering of animals, thus coining the name "clean meant".

But this is more than just a publicity stunt, as the company claims to be able to produce the same amount of meat as traditional distributers, but while only using one percent of the land and water. The implications of this could lead to profound effects on our environment, animals, and public health. Which is why billionaire investors are eager to through their money in the “clean meat” pot, 17million to exact. Brason believes that 30 years from now all meat will be clean, and there will be no longer be a need to kill any animals for food, and this all wouldn’t be made possible without the study of genetics.

for the article this posted is based on look here https://www.forbes.com/sites/zackfriedman/2017/08/25/why-bill-gates-richard-branson-clean-meat/#4e9e58bfaf27

and for the Memphis Meats website where you can learn more about the "Clean Meat" process use this link http://www.memphismeats.com/

The Dutch Hunger Winter: Starvation and its Effect on Genes

In September 1944, allied forces failed and all trains coming into the Netherlands came to holt. The Nazis planned to punish the Dutch people by blocking all food supplies going into the Netherlands thus, plunging much of the country into famine. By the time Holland was liberated in May 1945, more than 20,000 people had died of starvation. Pregnant people who survived the famine were uniquely affected in that their children would be influenced by the famine for the rest of their lives. When these children became adults they were heavier than average and as they became middle-aged they had higher levels of triglycerides and LDL cholesterol. Conditions such as diabetes, schizophrenia, and obesity were common and they as reached old age it was found that their mortality increased by 10% once past the age of 68.

Dr. Heijmans, a geneticist and Dr. Lumey, an epidemiologist published a paper with a possible answer. Their study suggests that the Dutch Hunger Winter silenced certain genes in the unborn children and they've stayed quiet since. Certain genes are active in some cells and some are quiet and this is set since birth unless something acts upon them, for example a virus; the study of this gene control is called epigenetics. Researchers have found that silenced genes have a collection of methyl groups near by. The researcher speculate that these methyl groups are affected by prenatal conditions thus, can affect the activity of genes. As terrible as the Dutch Hunger Winter was there is a silver lining. This silver lining has allowed researchers to study a unique health outcome that may help us better understand gene silencing and how a pregnant person's environment can affect their unborn child.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/31/science/dutch-famine-genes.html
https://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/en/tweede-wereldoorlog/kingdomofthenetherlands/thenetherlands/thenetherlands,june_1944_-_may_1945/the_hunger_winter

World's Smallest Molecular Sensors

Researchers at Wageningen University developed a sensor that is used to measure forces at a molecular level. The sensor is made up of a single molecule that serves as a measuring device, measuring nano-force. This sensor is more than 100 times more accurate than current sensors used to measure nano-forces on a molecular level. The current devices can barely measure the forces that are applied to molecules in cells because the forces are so tiny and the devices are too large. The research team used a combination of laser technology and chemical awareness to develop molecules that acts as a measuring device. Lasers are used to determine the amount of force by shining a laser on one molecule and reading the shade of light that returns. This new way of measuring nano-force may allow more awareness of the forces that are active in plant, animal, and human cells at a molecular level. Joris Sprakel, the leader of the research team, said, “If you understand the role of nano-forces in biological processes, in the long term it may be possible to prevent certain diseases due to errors in these cell forces.”


While doing some more research on this molecular sensor and other current sensors; I found a technique for measuring force that you guys might want to check out.

The Smiling Axolotl Hides a Secret: A Giant Genome

With 32 billion base pairs, the axolotl, also known as the Mexican salamander, is the largest genome ever sequenced! To put into perspective, that is ten times the size of the human genome, in which the human genome is already very complex. This creature is on the endangered list, however they are breeded in the laboratories because of their body’s unique structures and functions. Axolotl are able to repair broken parts of their bodies and regrow lost limbs, just as good of quality as before. For an example, “this salamander can heal a crushed spinal cord and have it function just like it before it was damaged.” These qualities are what make this specific animal incredibly interesting and worth researching. With this research, scientist can manipulate the genes of an axolotl and better understand how the genome effects cell behavior.

I think this discovery is fascinating because it opens a door of opportunity for researchers just like it did for those who studied Drosophila melanogaster and won a nobel prize. Also, it is amazing that with today’s advanced technology, genome sequence is becoming more easy and accessible. As a science major, I am excited and curious to see the next coming results after they further research the genes.

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/01/science/axolotl-genes-limbs.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fscience&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=rank&module=package&version=highlights&contentPlacement=2&pgtype=sectionfront

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/amphibians/a/axolotl/

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-genome

Depression Caused by Genes?

            There has been a study to determine whether depression is a genetic trait that is viewed as one grows up or is it a gene that has been passed down to them from their parents. It has been determined that it is a little bit of both that actually does cause depression in individuals. There is a much greater risk of having depression if an individual’s parents have it, and that is from viewing how a parent reacts to certain situations as they are growing up. But there has been no found gene that actually can be passed down to cause depression. A lot of studies looking into depression need to understand epigentics. Epigentics has a lot of to do with how the genes are expressed in physical of emotional ways. It has been found that if a mother is depressed, the children will end up being depressed more often than not than compared to that of the father being depressed. To conclude, depression is most likely from an individual’s surroundings as they grow then actual genes being passed down from their parents.

https://health.usnews.com/health-care/patient-advice/articles/2017-04-14/does-depression-run-in-families

Is Gene Therapy the New Treatment for Pancreatic Cancer?

In August of 2017, Dr. Stephan Grupp, who is the director of cancer immunotherapy, at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, announced a new treatment under research for leukemia. This treatment is called Kymriah, and its goal is to give patients who have undergone a relapse of leukemia, specifically B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, a second chance at survival. Instead of undergoing additional radiation, chemotheraphy, or other forms of treatment, Kymriah focuses on gene therapy. This form of treatment modifies a patient’s own immune cells; the cells get sent to a lab and are genetically modified using chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy. CAR-T’s aim is to give a patient’s cells the ability to detect and kill cancer cells. This is incredibly interesting, because a patient's own genes are modified and have the capability to save their own lives. Of those involved in the clinical trial, those among children and teenagers had a very successful reaction to the form of treatment. Almost 90% of patients undergoing the use of Kymriah survived the following six months, and nearly 80% of those patients survived the following year. This set of treatment is currently seeking approval for July of 2018, and may revolutionize the treatment of blood cancer.

https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/30/health/fda-first-gene-therapy-leukemia/index.html

https://3c1703fe8d.site.internapcdn.net/newman/gfx/news/hires/2013/1-pluripotentc.jpg