AI-Based Liquid Biopsy for the Early Detection of Circulating Tumor DNA

Figure 1. The workflow of liquid biopsy using artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms for early detection and personalized treatments of cancer.


    Liquid biopsy, a minimally invasive and often blood-based test, detects circulating cancer-related genetic material such as tumor cells (CTCs), circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), extracellular vesicles (EVs), tumor-educated platelets (TEPs), and circulating RNAs within body fluids. With the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms, liquid biopsy can become more sensitive and precise in its analysis. Liquid biopsy can ultimately improve early detection, predict prognosis, and monitor treatment response in different cancers. AI models help liquid biopsy accomplish this by distinguishing tumor-generated ctDNA from hematopoietic cells and other non-malignant tissues through the liquid biopsy's low signal-to-noise ratio. From there, AI employs multilayered analytical techniques, exploiting distinct molecular features that identify ctDNA from normal cfDNA. This consists of somatic mutation detection, differential DNA methylation patterns, and copy number alterations. It also has the ability to detect epigenetic biomarkers on the DNA, indicating which organ the cancer originated from. Additionally, the DNA fragmentation as a result of cell death is detected by AI as "genomic fingerprints” that are identified to catch cancer at Stage I.

    Liquid biopsy extends beyond diagnosis - it holds additional significance in its ability to generate prognostic insights, helping anticipate the likely trajectory of a patient’s disease. The non-invasive and repeatable nature of liquid biopsy permits long-term follow up, allowing clinicians to assess the disease evolution in real-time and appropriately respond to the therapy. Unlike a tissue biopsy that focuses on a specific area, a liquid biopsy focuses on the genetic material that represents the entire tumor heterogeneity, including sub-clonal mutations that can be missed by a tissue biopsy. Essentially, liquid biopsy provides a dynamic overview of tumor behavior. While its clinical application is constrained due to limited sensitivity, specificity, and a lack of standardization, liquid biopsy can be a significantly impactful tool to uncover genetic and molecular alterations that happen early in the development of cancer and provide circulating molecular tumor-derived material.



Links:

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12839035/

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13064412/

Genetic Mutations Contributing to Disorders in the Brain

 Researchers identified several new genetic mutations that contribute to brain development disorders linked to severe childhood epilepsy. By analyzing brain tissue from affected children, scientists found that many of these mutations occur in genes that control how brain cells grow, divide, and communicate during early development. Some mutations disrupted important pathways, such as the mTOR pathway, leading to abnormal brain structure and seizures. The discovery helps scientists better understand the genetic causes of these disorders and may lead to more accurate diagnoses and targeted treatments in the future.

#disorder #genetic #brain 

source: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-updates/2023/researchers-unlock-genetic-mutations-contributing-to-disorders-in-the-brain

https://medlineplus.gov/geneticbraindisorders.html

New Study Rewrites Decades of Fat Science

Scientists have discovered that a protein called HSL not only breaks down fat, but also helps regulate cell health and metabolism. This is why people (and mice) missing this gene develop something called lipodystrophy. This rare condition causes people to lose healthy fat tissue, rather than become obese, despite the fact that HSL breaks down fat. These findings could lead to new approaches for treating metabolic diseases. The information from this research calls for more targeted therapeutic strategies for conditions like obesity, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. The work also reinforces the idea that metabolic enzymes can have multiple functions and provides a deeper understanding of cellular metabolism/energy balances. 

Sources:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/05/260508171123.htm

https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(25)00433-4

GloFish: one step closer to Jurassic Park

 

    When I was in elementary school, my friends and I used to play this game on the computers called Duck Life. Duck Life was a franchise, plenty of games, but there was a continuous story throughout them all. I forget which game it was, but one of the Duck Life games had a story along the lines of: the previous game's duck was unbeatable, therefore, the only way to surpass it, is to genetically modify new ducks into freaks of nature that can swim, run, and climb faster than a normal duck. I always thought this one was the coolest, much to the disagreement of my friends. Growing up on Jurassic Park, specifically the book by Micheal Critchon, I always liked the idea of genetically modifying a creature into a new form, whether it was modifying my duck to have massive gorilla arms to climb Mount Fiji, or filling in the gaps of dinosaur DNA with that of modern reptiles to produce the featherless dinosaurs in Jurassic Park, something about the idea was just so neat to me.

     My little god complex aside; this happens everywhere! While not dinosaurs, genetic modification is a common technique nowadays in the pet industry. For many, many centuries, animals were bred for desirable traits, including pets like dogs and cats. This is different from genetic engineering, as where breeding focuses a lot more on the phenotypes, and breeding for desired traits, genetic engineering focuses on altering the DNA itself into a new form. The article focuses in on a new genetically engineered fish called GloFish, which were modified to express fluorescent proteins they do not typically express in nature. The first GloFish was actually made using Green Fluorescence Protein extracted from jellyfish; the same one used in this year's genetics lab. Since then, due to advances in technology and computers increasing in power significantly, many more colors are now available on the market. I think this also highlights a darker side of genetics, were, theoretically, organisms can be genetically modified into more dangerous versions of existing organisms. With increasing accessibility to genomic information due to massive online gene banks, it's only a matter of time before some sort of bioterrorism event happens where someone somewhere somehow gives a mantis x-ray vision and destroys the local Walmart supercenter. 

Sources:

https://247wallst.com/technology-3/2025/10/12/genetically-engineered-pets-are-here-and-you-can-buy-one-for-7/

https://petreader.net/the-origins-of-glofish-a-brief-history/

Similarities in Genetic Pathways Between Humans and Mice Regarding Disk Herniation

 

In a recent study examining the genetic factors and age regarding disk herniation in mouse models, researchers may have found similarities to the condition in humans.

“Disk herniation” is when the disks in between the vertebrae of the spine protrude, which often puts pressure on the nerve and can cause extreme pain and discomfort. While this is a well documented condition in human individuals over the age of 40, mice are also capable of experiencing disk herniation. When researchers analyzed genetic markers for the condition in mice, similarities were discovered to those in humans. Transcriptomic analysis confirmed that pathways for inflammation and the activation of immune cells were similar in mice and humans and this way.

This has very large implications for the medical industry, as the more genes that are discovered in mice that create similar pathways to those for humans, the better we are able to understand human diseases and treat them.

Sources:

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado6847

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15879573/

The Potential of Cardiac Gene Therapy

 

A recent article explains how gene therapy is rapidly transforming modern medicine by evolving from an experimental concept into a powerful tool with real world success in treating genetic disorders. Today, researchers are exploring how these same technologies could revolutionize the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Although current treatments such as medications, medical devices, and lifestyle changes have improved patient outcomes, they fail to address the underlying molecular causes of heart disease. Gene therapy offers a new approach by targeting disease at the genetic and cellular levels, potentially providing long lasting or curative treatments for heart conditions, which include heart failure, cardiomyopathies, arrhythmias, and vascular disease.

One aspect of cardiac gene therapy is the development of advanced delivery systems, like viral vectors and lipid nanoparticles that can transport therapeutic genes directly into heart tissue. These technologies allow scientists to precisely control where and how genes are expressed. While challenges still remain, researchers are becoming increasingly optimistic about the future of molecular medicine in cardiology.

Link:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0828282X26000644#sec14


Additional:

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.310039

Genetic test for the personalization of sport training

 The article explains that athletic performance is influenced by a combination of genetics, training, nutrition, and environment, rather than by a single “sports gene.” Researchers have identified certain genes, such as ACE and ACTN3, that may influence whether a person is naturally better suited for endurance activities or power-and-sprint-based sports. The paper also discusses how genetics can influence injury risk, recovery time, and response to different types of exercise. Although commercial DNA tests claim they can identify athletic talent and create personalized training programs, the authors argue that the science is still limited and cannot reliably predict elite performance. They emphasize that hard work, coaching, motivation, and lifestyle remain far more important than genetic testing alone, while also raising concerns about privacy, discrimination, and the ethical use of genetic information in sports.

#sports #dna #athletictalent #genes 

source: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8023127/

CRISPR Reprograms CAR T-Cells to Improve Cancer Treatments

Figure 1. A two-vector system is applied for in vivo CAR T-cell production, delivering CRISPR-Cas9 components that enable the engineered T-cells to target and destroy cancer cells.


     CRISPR, a gene-editing tool, has improved cancer immunotherapy by amplifying an immune cell’s ability to recognize tumors, effectively preventing them from further developing. With the use of CRISPR-Cas9 technology, T-cells (white blood cells produced in the thymus) were engineered to produce Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) -T cells, which target cancer cells. Usually, CAR-T therapy is performed in a laboratory setting, requiring immune cells to be removed from a patient, genetically modified, and then reinfused. Consequently, the therapy is time-consuming and expensive. However, researchers have found a way to genetically reprogram T-cells in vivo, allowing for direct immune cell modification within the patient to be done.

     A two-vector system was developed to “deliver CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins and a DNA donor template via enveloped delivery transporters and adeno-associated viruses” (Nyberg et al., 2026). By incorporating a CAR transgene into a particular locus receptive towards T cells, therapeutic levels of CAR T-cells were produced in vivo. This procedure was tested with humanized mouse models of B-cell aplasia, carrying blood and solid tumors. The engineered T-cells successfully attacked both the blood and solid tumors in the mouse models. Ultimately, the articles revealed the possibility of faster and more accessible CAR-T cancer treatments through CRISPR gene editing.



Links:

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-026-10235-x
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13096480/

Man studies the pond water; accidentally discovers protist that defies genetic law

   

In most cases, DNA replication stops at a stop codon, or an animo acid that codes for the stop codon. A team at Earlham Institute took samples of freshwater to collect a certain protist: Oligohymenophorea sp. The goal was simple: collect the samples, analyze the genome, and ultimately test a new DNA sequencing pipeline specialized in extremely small amounts of DNA. But for our brave scientists, fate had other plans: an undiscovered species that had a completely new take on DNA reading. The protist, somehow, reassigned the two codons typically associated with gene stopping signals had been changed to different amino acid sequences. In the specific protist, only TGA functions as a stop codon, and not TAG and TAA. Additionally, the protist had an elevated amount of TGA's, theorized to be a compensation for the repurposing of TAA and TAG. I find studies like this interesting for two reasons. One: It shows how our modern understanding of both biology and genetics is not a complete understanding, rather it is an explanation that BEST explains things. And two, it shows how science can be unpredictable, and new ideas can be found pretty much everywhere, even ponds.   

 Source:

 https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/05/260507024045.htm

https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1010913

https://ar.inspiredpencil.com/pictures-2023/protist-cell-microscope

Genetic Ties to Bone Density in the Younger Generation

Carmine Martino

BIOL-2110-001

Dr. Guy Barbato

May 7th, 2026 

        Researchers at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia studied how genetics affect bone density in children and adolescents. Bone density during childhood is important because it can affect bone strength and fracture risk later in life. The article explains that things like chronic health conditions, dietary restrictions, and steroid use can affect bone health, but genetics also play a major role.

        Two recent studies looked at how genetic and genomic information can help scientists better understand bone development in young people. Most previous studies on bone density genetics focused more on adults, so these studies focused specifically on children and teenagers instead. The findings showed that genetics can strongly influence bone mineral density during childhood and adolescence. Bone density is kind of like building a foundation for a house. If the foundation is stronger early on, the structure has a better chance of holding up later in life. The same idea applies to bones during childhood and adolescence, since these years are important for bone development.

        Another thing that stood out was how genetic information may eventually help identify kids who are at greater risk for weaker bones or fractures earlier in life. It reminds me of how some people seem naturally more prone to injuries than others even if they live similar lifestyles. These findings show that genetics may help explain some of those differences.

Article:

https://www.news-medical.net/news/20251119/Scientists-uncover-genetic-components-linked-to-bone-density-in-young-people.aspx

Extra Source:

https://medlineplus.gov/bonedensity.html

Discovery of Mouse Genes Related to Heart Rate and Blood Pressure

In a recent study examining blood pressure and heart rate, researchers may have identified a genetic component.

It is a well known fact that both resting heart rate and blood pressure both have a significant effect on cardiovascular health. Unfortunately, while both factors have a relatively high heritability, the genes influencing their rates are difficult to locate. The key? ENU germline mutagenesis.

In this study, researchers utilized N-ethyl-N-nitrosurea (ENU) mutagenesis to create rapid mutations in the reproductive cells of mice. This was paired with meiotic mapping to find loci with genes that code for heart rate. After testing over 40,000 mice, 87 systolic blood pressure genes and 144 HR genes were found.

This research is important because of how deadly heart disease can be. By analyzing genes affecting heart rate and blood pressure in mice, medical researchers may get a better idea of preventative measures for human heart disease in the future.

Sources:

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adj9797

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10221322/

One mother for two species via obligate cross-species cloning in ants

    It's generally assumed in the field of genetics that organisms produce offspring of the same species. This article explored how Messor ibericus, a species of ant, are able to give birth to offspring of two different species: Messor Ibericus and Messor Structor. For most ants, queens handle most if not all of the offspring, which they fertilize with sperm obtained during their nuptial flights from male ants, called alates, of the same species. The sperm is stored in a unique organ called the spermatheca, that helps store the sperm and keep it fertile for upwards of 30 years in some species, requiring the queen to only be fertilized once. In this case, it was discovered that Messor Ibericus cannot reproduce without the sperm of Messor Structor males. Thus, for the species to survive, the Ibericus queens have adapted a unique type of sexual hybridization through sperm parasitism, to create both male Ibericus and male Structor to boost reproductive odds of the species as a whole during nuptial flights. The article theorizes that the adaptation was forced, as the species diverged over 5 million years ago, yet were pushed to two distinct locations. One population was left without Structor, and was forced to hybridize. 

Sources:

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09425-w

https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Messor_ibericus

Using Bioinformatics to Investigate Keloid

 

Image: Jiao H, Zhang T, Fan J, and Xiao R (2017). Keloid Dermis at Different Depths.


A recent study investigated the biological mechanisms behind keloid formation and may help lead to improved methods for preventing and treating the condition. Keloids are a type of fibrotic skin disorder caused by excessive growth of scar tissue, often resulting in raised scars, pain, and limited movement. Although keloids are common, the exact causes of their development are still not fully understood. Current treatment options are also limited in effectiveness.

Researchers used data from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to identify genes that are expressed differently in keloid tissue compared to normal tissue. Bioinformatics analyses were performed to examine gene enrichment patterns as well as cell and tissue specific expression.

The analysis identified the gene Homeobox D8 (HOXD8) as a major contributor to keloid development. HOXD8 expression was found to be approximately two times higher in keloid tissues than in normal tissues. When researchers suppressed HOXD8 activity, the growth of keloid fibroblasts was significantly reduced, while cell death increased. These effects were also linked to changes in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

Overall, the study suggests that HOXD8 plays an important role in promoting keloid formation through its effects on signaling pathways in keloid fibroblasts. These findings provide new insight into the molecular basis of keloid disease and indicate that HOXD8 could serve as a promising target for future therapies.


link:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1687850726002268


additional:
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2017.00885/full

Human Evolution is Accelerating

Carmine Martino

BIOL-2110-001

Dr. Guy Barbato

May 5th, 2026 

        A large ancient DNA study found that natural selection has played a much bigger role in recent human evolution than previously thought. By analyzing nearly 16,000 ancient genomes, the data showed that natural selection has affected hundreds of genes in people from West Eurasia over the past 10,000 years.

        Earlier studies had only identified a small number of genes influenced by natural selection, but this research showed that the number is much higher. In total, hundreds of genetic variants were identified as having been shaped by natural selection, which suggests that human evolution has been more active and widespread in recent history than scientists originally believed. Many of the genes identified are linked to disease risk and other traits seen in people today. However, it is not always clear why these genetic variants were beneficial in the past, even though they have become more common over time. The findings also show that natural selection has continued throughout recent human history and has not slowed down. This suggests that human evolution is still ongoing and that genetic changes have continued even after major lifestyle changes such as the development of agriculture.

        This study highlights how powerful ancient DNA research has become and how it can be used to better understand how human genetics have changed over time. It also shows that many traits seen in people today may have been shaped by natural selection in ways that are still not fully understood.

Article:

https://hms.harvard.edu/news/massive-ancient-dna-study-reveals-natural-selection-has-accelerated-recent-human-evolution

Extra Source: 

https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-natural-selection.html

Narcissism Runs in Families Due to Genetics

    This article summarizes the finding of a study done using a large extended twin design. Narcissism, a personality trait associated with one's obsession with themselves, or being extremely selfish, is often assumed to be linked to environmental and social upbringing. This study found that narcissism developed in twins regardless of environment or social status, implying a genetic cause for being a narcissist. The study used data from the German Twinlife project, which is a large, published, twin family study with extensive genetic AND environmental informational available. Narcissism was found to be inheritable, and common between twins, as if one twin was considered to be narcissistic, so was the other

 Sources:

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/19485506261429556

https://www.twin-life.de/

Improving the Quality of Life in Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

 Therapeutic targets to enhance the livelihood of those diagnosed with Progressive Supranuclear Palsy.

Figure: In a 2014 MRI scan of a patient diagnosed with Progressive Supranuclear Palsy, the "hummingbird sign" is present, imitating how a stroke would present on this type of scan.

    Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects one's walking, balance, body movements, and eye movements over time, a type of atypical Parkinsonism. The onset of this disease is typically in their late 60s, eventually leading to complications of pneumonia, choking, and head injuries from falls. There is no current treatment that effectively slows or stops the progression of this disease. 

    However, new research coming out of the University of Florida has promising potential. This team found that toxic buildup of protein tau is a primary molecular mechanism of this disease. Using CRISPR gene-editing technology, the team suppressed PERK-B, a variant associated with the PSP disease. By doing this, the researchers found differences in four proteins, reducing DLX-1 and protein tau levels. These findings could eventually be useful in developing gene therapies for the disease to alleviate symptoms.

Sources:

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/46/13/e1727252026

https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/progressive-supranuclear-palsy-psp

https://mbi.ufl.edu/2026/02/23/new-study-reveals-potential-targets-to-treat-progressive-supranuclear-palsy/

Science proves the bigger your brain, the bigger your wallet

 

    It's no surprise that genetics most certainly has an effect on one's life, and to that degree, their success in life. Someone born with a life altering genetic condition, such as Down's Syndrome or Sickle Cell Anemia will undoubtedly have a harder time with finding success in careers as opposed to ones who do not, especially in physically involved careers such as construction. The study here focuses more on the genetic side of the brain, mostly IQ. IQ is a simple concept, in general, the larger your IQ, the better your brain is at comprehension. IQ differs in individuals as IQ is correlated to the efficiency of the cells and neurons in the brain, which are inherited. Notably, the whole, larger surface area to volume ratio rule of cells applies to the brain aswell. Brains with more wrinkles tend to be from individuals of higher intelligence. Thus, if the cells determine your IQ, and your cells are inherited, then really, your IQ is inherited Aswell. 

    The study focuses a lot on the nature vs nurture of success. The study used a major twin study, specifically the German Twin Life project, to contrast and compare multiple individuals who had their IQ measured at 23 years old, then compared their socioeconomic status at age 27, and found a rather large correlation between IQ and success, being that a higher IQ often lead to a better socioeconomic status than lower IQ, regardless of upbringing. That's Victor Frankenstein 1, and Frankenstein's Monster 0; if anyone's keeping score. I personally, find these results frightening. It's not groundbreaking news to me, as it's generally socially accepted that the smarter you are, the higher chance of a successful life, but as someone who isn't the smartest in the room, it does hurt to hear I am genetically predisposed to not be the most successful. Just how the cookie crumbles though, success can still come from the worst of things!

Source:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/05/260505234624.htm

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-37786-3

New Human Gene Cluster Discovery Sheds Light on “Genetic Dark Matter”

                            

    Scientists led by Ali Shilatifard have discovered a new repeat gene cluster in the human genome that is unique to humans and other primates. Published in Science Advances, the study reveals a previously hidden region of DNA that could reshape how we understand gene regulation and evolution.

    The newly identified cluster produces a protein called ELOA3, related to transcription machinery that controls how genes are expressed. Unlike typical genes, which appear once or in small numbers, this cluster contains multiple repeated copies of the same gene located together. Interestingly, the number of copies varies widely between individuals, adding another layer of genetic diversity.

    For years, large portions of the genome made up of repetitive DNA were considered “genetic dark matter” because older sequencing methods couldn’t properly analyze them. With newer long-read sequencing technologies, researchers can now explore these regions and uncover their biological significance. The team found that ELOA3 plays a role in regulating RNA polymerase II transcription, but through distinct mechanisms compared to related proteins. This suggests the gene cluster may contribute to subtle differences in gene expression between individuals and across primate species.

    Beyond basic genetics, this discovery has important implications. Because gene regulation is tightly linked to diseases like cancer, understanding how ELOA3 works could eventually support targeted drug development. It may also help explain aspects of human evolution, since the gene cluster appears conserved across primates but varies in copy number.

Article Link: https://news.feinberg.northwestern.edu/2023/11/22/new-human-gene-cluster-sequence-discovered/

Additional Resource: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adj1261

Breakthrough Treatment for High-Cholesterol

 A new gene therapy treatment inhibiting the protein PCSK9 for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia.

Figure: This drug aims to inhibit a protein that increases the risk of heart disease by damaging arteries.

    Previously, high cholesterol has been treated with statin medications, causing side effects of muscle weakness, increased blood sugar, and gastrointestinal issues. Recently, targeting the development of PCSK9 proteins has become increasing more prevalent. PCSK9 proteins cause harm by attaching themselves to LDL receptors and inhibit these proteins from removing excess cholesterol, eventually causing the buildup of LDL cholesterol.

    The University of Barcelona has developed a new method of treating hypercholesterolemia with gene therapy. By utilizing polypurine hairpins, short molecules of DNA that bind to specific molecules, specific sites coding for PCSK9 are targeted and blocked from transcription. The subsequent increase in LDL receptors allows the body to pull cholesterol out of the blood stream and reduce plaque formation in the arteries. This new treatment is a safer way to regulate high cholesterol and risk of heart disease.

Sources:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/05/260501013525.htm

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006295225002382?via%3Dihub

The Fall of Rome, The Rise of Genetic Diversity

    

The Roman Empire is regarded as one of the most prestigious and influential societies of all time. According to myth, the Roman Empire was thought to be founded by a group of Trojan individuals from Turkey. Unfortunately, this is just myth: as not only has this been proven false, but evidence points there to be a lack of Trojans in the Roman Empire; as the Romans were found to mingle and populate with local inhabitants. The Roman Empire, while it stood, did not particularly mix with the local population of Europe. But following the fall of the empire, with Roman Law dysfunctional, Roman citizens began to intermingle. This was found by examining cemeteries in Germania and comparing their DNA, and the isotypes left in their bones. Most of the genetic diversity in Europe at the time of the Roman Empire lied within the Roman Empire itself, with less diverse populations scattered about outside of it. By using isotopes, the scientists could measure half-lives and determine the age of the bones, thus placing an approximate date of the person's life. Then, they compared the percentage of regional DNA throughout the time, and found that as the Roman Empire fell, the genetic diversity of all of Europe began to rose. I find this interesting as nowadays, this type of thing wouldn't be possible. With such large amounts of immigration and emigration, I imagine genetic diversity will continue to climb over the next couple hundred years, maybe even thousands.

Sources:

 https://english.elpais.com/science-tech/2026-04-29/genetics-reveals-that-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire-shaped-europes-population.html

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-026-10437-3