E-I-E-I-Omics: Cracking the Code to Smarter Corn

Corn is an essential backbone to the products our society produces every day, being in just about everything from food to fuel, and packaging. However, growing climate challenges mean that today's crops must be productive and resilient. A new study by the University of Michigan may be helping farmers do just that.

Led by biologist Alexandre Marand, researchers analyzed DNA from nearly 200 maize varieties, focusing not just on the genes themselves but also on how individual cells utilize them. While every cell shares the same genetic code, different cells activate or deactivate genes in unique ways, influencing how a plant grows, withstands stress, and adapts to its environment. The key takeaway here is that the most significant traits arise from changes in gene regulation rather than merely the genetic sequence. This shift in understanding enables scientists to predict how genetic modifications might enhance crop performance or lead to unintended consequences. It’s like knowing how a car operates, not just the components it contains. By mapping gene activity at the cellular level, researchers can now develop corn that is better suited to various climates and growing conditions. The future of farming could be more precise and productive, thanks to breakthroughs like this.




Sources:

https://phys.org/news/2025-04-omics-discoveries-corn-genetics-productive.html

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads6601

New Research and Studies Show Genetic Diversity in Corn

    Research and studies showed newly assembled genomes of 26 different genetic lines of corn, showing the crop’s rich genetic diversity. Detailed in an article published in the journal Science, first author of the study and an associate professor of ecology, evolution and organismal biology at Iowa State University, Matthew Hufford, says that these genomes as references can better help plant scientists select genes that lead to better crop yields or stress tolerance. The first corn genome, mapped in 2009 at Iowa State by Patrick Schnable and Doreen Ware and team, was the genetic line known as B73. Since then, B73 has served as the primary reference genome for corn, and scientists have a limited understanding of genetic sequences in corn genomes that are not in B73. The 26 genomes mapped in the new study, however, encompass a wide range of genetic diversity, including popcorn to sweetcorn to field corn from different geographical and environmental conditions. This genome mapping provides more reference data in order for scientists to combine maize genetics for targets that could lead to better crop performance. The large genetic diversity present in corn, however, creates major hurdles for the creation of new genomes, since 85% of the corn genome is composed of transposable elements. Hufford, comparing these elements to a jigsaw puzzle because the majority of pieces are one color. This repetition makes it harder to determine how the parts fit together. Technological advancements allow tools for researchers to overcome these hurdles, and allows for longer sequence reads, which make the pieces of the puzzle larger and more likely to be arranged properly by scientists.

Link to Study: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/08/210805141202.htm

Link to Article: https://phys.org/news/2021-08-corn-genetic-diversity-genome.html

Potential Economical Ramifications from Genetically Modified Agriculture

 

        Since Mendel's theory of inheritance was adapted by the agriculture industry and the FDA approved consumption of the first genetically modified food in 1982, the price of popular seeds has gradually increased. The biggest growth has occurred in the last 25 years, as noted in the graph and in an article by farmaid, "USDA data show that the per-acre cost of soybean and corn seed spiked dramatically between 1995 and 2014, by 351% and 321%, respectively." The price of soybean and corn in groceries stores will not increase tremendously. These products will continue to undergo typical societal inflation along with other produce. The purpose of this article is to shine light on the growing difficulties smaller farmers will face to obtain enough seed to fill their acres of land. Corporate agriculture companies like Monsanto, DuPont, Syngenta, and Dow can afford these spiking prices in seeds because they are the ones raising the prices. The "Big Four" companies own 70% of the soybean market and 80% of the corn market. This dominance unequivocally makes it harder for the small-market farmer to obtain and grow corn and seed in their fields. 

https://www.farmaid.org/issues/gmos/gmos-top-5-concerns-for-family-farmers/

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732/

Pollen Grain Mutations

In an article published by Science Daily, it introduces how scientists from Rutgers University and Montclair state teamed together and looked at pollen gene mutations in corn. At first, it states how the U.S is the worlds largest corn producer with 90 million acres in fiscal according to the U.S Department of Agriculture. Then it states that the Rutgers-led team that mutations in pollen are caused by mobile retrotransposons which are comparable to retroviruses in mammals. A scientist from Waksmin Institute of Microbiology states his findings saying, "we found that spontaneous mutations in corn genes arise relatively frequently in the pollen of some but not all lines," (Dooner)

Pollen grains are the male gametes (reproductive cells) and have an estimate of several mutations per gene per million pollen grains according to the study in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. However the female gametes on corn ears had no detachable mutations The next step in this study is to monitor whether retrotransposon-induced mutations cause genetic instability in corn lines that have been previously reported by breeders. This study may lead to more successful breeding of corn and other crop.

Photo credit: Integrated Pest Management - Mizzou

Hybrid Plants Produce Greater Yields

Crops grown in the greenhouse by Grossniklaus and his team

Currently, research is being done into plants that reproduce through apomoxis, in which the parent plant clones their seeds and produces an identical offspring. Though this concept is not a new one, it has yet to be proven in the lab: until now. Professor Ueli Grossniklaus at the Department of Plant and Microbial Biology at the University of Zurich has proven this theory using apomictic seeds, Grossniklaus and his team managed to successfully clone a hybrid plant that had greater yield than traditional crops of that breed. As a result, the effects of the hybridization lasted two generations longer, leading to more fruitful harvests. The best part is that it is all natural.

Many attempts at breeding apomixis into a population of plants have been attempted, but often result in infertile, unsuitable results. This article details other methods of research that have been applied in the past.

As a side note regarding my previous article about the importance of refuge crops, this research could aid farmers who claim crop yields are a factor behind why they do not engage in the use of refuge crops. These breeding methods could ultimately benefit both farmers and consumers.

Using RNA interference in corn to prevent fungal aflatoxin production

A major economic problem and health concern of the world is the harmful effect of fungi on the agricultural production of food. Fungi can destroy crops in the field or food during storage/shipment. Great effort is made to control this including the use of biocontrols, strict storage methods, and fungicides with decreasing efficiency. Recent work attempts to suppress aflatoxin production in certain fungi (aspergillus strains) with genetic technology. The research involves RNA interference in corn to control the production of aflatoxins in two aspergillus strains. RNA interference is an important natural process that helps defend against foreign invaders in a cell through the production of micro-RNAs or siRNAs (short interfering). The micro-RNA or siRNA binds to target messenger RNA sequences and prevents translation into protein. This has been used as a tool to induce gene silencing and has helped advance genetic understanding. In this study, transgenic corn has been produced using RNA interference that prevents the production of a certain protein in the biosynthetic pathway of aflatoxin production. It is possible that this is an effective way to prevent aspergillus harm to crops and increase global food security. It must be noted that this may stop fungal aflatoxin production in living crops but airtight storage must be coupled with this strategy in order to prevent fungal contamination in food being stored/shipped.

Article:

http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/3/e1602382.full

Pop news article:

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-grow-toxin-free-corn?mode=topic&context=88&tgt=nr

RNA interference:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cK-OGB1_ELE

Aflatoxin info (end of video discusses a different biocontrol):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r1sMTaEJcRA

FDA says Genetically Modified Apples and Potatoes are Safe to Consume

                  Okanagan Specialty Fruits developed the Article apple, and J.R. Simplot Company developed the Innate Potato. Both crops were designed to defy browning when sliced or bruised, and the potato was reduced of its potential cancer-causing chemical when fried. Although the F.D.A. approves of the genetically engineered apples and potatoes to be safe and nutritious in comparison to the non-engineered plant, there are still many consumers and environmental groups that oppose. These groups have warned restaurants and food companies against using engineered crops while other groups think that accepting engineered foods will taint the image of the organically made crops. Mostly all biotech crops go through the F.D.A.’s safety food review even though it is optional. The opposing biotech parties argue that the F.D.A. reviews are not adequate, but the F.D.A. assures that their evaluations are in-depth. The F.D.A. even advises that the biotech companies disclose information to their consumers by labeling. In the meantime, the discussion of what should appear on the labels, and when the labels would be used is in process. Currently, it is suggested that the label should include an appealing description of the trait without the inclusion of the crop being “genetically engineered”. The primary developers believe that when they sell the seed of the biotech potatoes and apples to growers, they are then not responsible for ensuring how the crops or products using the crops would be labeled. 
                  I believe that both the favoring and opposing groups have some valid points. Currently, there are many GMO and GMO containing products in the market. For example high fructose corn syrup and soy beans are typical GMO's where the majority of its crop type is genetically modified. I think that biotech foods are not bad for humans just because they were not naturally formed by nature. The only question I have is that if a fruit does not brown, how does a person know if its still good to eat? Other than that, I believe that non-browning crops have the potential to be a positive thing for society. 

Original link: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/21/business/gene-altered-apples-and-potatoes-are-safe-fda-says.html?ref=science

Additional link: http://www.dailyfinance.com/2013/11/21/foods-give-up-avoid-eating-gmo/#!fullscreen&slide=1585612

Additional link 2: http://www.nongmoproject.org/learn-more/what-is-gmo/

A More Effective Way of Converting Sugars Into Biofuels

Recently, scientists have taken interest in corn because it can be used in the production of ethanol. This is a biofuel that can potentially be a clean-burning, renewable fuel. Corn was chosen because of how abundant it is in the United States. This is the only type of biofuel that is produced in serious quantities. However, the current issue with the production of ethanol is the processing of the lignocellulosic biomass (plant dry matter). The yield is not greater than the costs of creating the ethanol. In a ScienceDaily article, a new synthetic metabolic pathway for breaking down glucoses was tested and confirmed to produce 50% more ethanol. 

This new pathway is called non-oxidative glycolysis (NOG). NOG was created to potentially replace the current natural processed called glycolysis. This pathway utilizes enzymes from several different pathways found in nature. In the preliminary in vitro studies, NOG was shown to be successful. With a genetically engineered recombinant strain of E. coli, the results indicated that there was complete carbon conservation unlike glycolysis which loses carbon through the production of CO², a byproduct. In conjunction with CO² fixation, biofuels yield would increase and therefore making the conversion process more effective.

E. coli using non-oxidative glycolysis

Biofuels are one of the most discussed advances in today's society. I strongly believe that biofuel can solve a lot of the problems found in United States economy. On the other hand, the dependence on corn (or other commonly produced crops that are used for fuel and food) could also lead to higher prices if droughts occurred. Specifically, gas, animal products and meats would all increase in price if corn production is halted. I believe that extra precautions need to be taken when combining sections of the food and energy economies together. 

Genetically modified corn is actually better for the environment and harvesters

 

Since 1996, corn has been genetically modified to contain a protein that is toxic to certain insects but safe for humans to consume. This type of corn has been named "Bt corn". It has recently been found that Bt corn can reduce the amount of  insecticide use on the corn crops. The bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis produces a protein called the Bt delta endotoxin. This protein kills Lepidoptera caterpillars during its larval stage. The Lepidoptera caterpillar is also known as the European corn borer.  Having this toxin helps keep these corn-loving caterpillars away from the harvesting corn. Interestingly enough, the Bt delta endotoxin does not harm any other form of insect such as flies, bees, beetles, etc.

 

It was found in a study that the Bt corn performed better in managing to keep the corn ear worms away than did the non Bt corn that was sprayed with insecticide. The Bt corn can harvest successfully without any type of spray or insecticide, making it much easier on the environment and the people who harvest it. The Bt corn has also received higher profits than non Bt corn because it also takes less money to grow it. Without having to pay for insecticides to spray on the corn to make it grow, the Bt delta endotoxin serves as its own natural insecticide.

 

Some grocery stores refuse to sell the Bt corn because it is a genetically modified product. However, the genetic modification in this corn turns out to bring more benefit to the earth and the people who handle it more than it does harm. The Bt delta endotoxin is completely harmless to humans and other mammals, so there is no danger in enjoying a piece of Bt corn.

I find this concept extremely important. While the corn might not be grown entirely naturally, the amount of money being paid to spray the corn with insecticide would decrease exponentially, causing the farmers to save money and make more profit. Also, if there is no harm in eating this genetically modified corn, then it is a win-win situation for all. Humans are also not ingesting any harmful insecticide. I feel that we are headed to this type of crop growing revelation in the future.

 

 

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131007094508.htm

http://www2.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef130.asp 



New Study Looks into Genetic Explanation for Heterosis in Corn

 



For over a hundred years, farmers used the concept of heterosis to increase crop yields. To take the most advantage of increased productivity, farmers cross two distinct lines of corn to produce a variety that performs much better than either of the two original strains. Much works has been done to study what lineages produce various types of corn, such as field corn and sweet corn. However, for all of the work that has done with corn hybrids, the genetic mechanism that makes this all possible remains a mystery – until now.

According to Science Daily, a research team comprised of individuals from the University of Bonn, Iowa State University, and the Max Plank Institute has proposed a genetic reason as to why heterosis works. Through state-of-the-art genetic sequencing technology, the researchers discovered genetic fingerprints suggesting that hybrid plants have more active genes than purelines. The increase in the amount of active genes allows hybrid plants to be more productive.

Perhaps the most exciting part of the article is its application to the real world. As food prices – especially corn prices – rise higher every day, there would be a great worldwide benefit if the researchers’ work could be used to produce corn crops with higher yields. Not only is corn used for human consumption, but it is also used for animal feed and biofuels as well. The researchers’ findings has the potential to have a major impact in the global economy.

U.S. Approves Corn Modified for Ethanol

The article written is about genetically modified corn that makes it easier to convert it to ethanol. It was approved by the Department of Agriculture.  However, there are many people that object this decision claiming that the genetically modified corn, if cross-pollinated or mixed with corm used for food would lead to the products made with the modified corn to produce side effects. This corn was developed by Syngenta, contains a microbial gene that causes it to produce an enzyme that breaks down corn starch into sugar, the first step toward making ethanol. Manufacturers of Ethanol can buy the enzyme "alpha amylase" which is in liquid form, and add it to the corm to start the process. Syngenta says that the enzyme will be in the corn to breakdown to help reduce the use of water and increase the ethanol output.  The company said they they have made various measures to prevent the modified corn from getting into the food supply. This corm is called Enogen and is the first genetically modified crop to contain a trait that influences the use of the plant after harvest. Usually the traits are to help farmers for pest resistance. The Agricultural Department said the corn met the statutory requirements for approval. The corn is the third recent one in which the Agricultural Department has has to weigh the risk s of the spread of a genetically engineered trait.

The corn that was genetically modified is not for food consumption so as long as it does not get into the food supply, it is fine. This is because the corn is not made for consumption, rather it is to make ethanol. The only problem with this corn is that if it ever did get into the food supply it would most likely pollute the corn that is made for consumption.